Compassionate goals, responsiveness, and well-being.

Compassionate goals-intentions to be supportive and constructive and not harm relationship partners-predict responsiveness and well-being. However, not much is known about whether the effects of compassionate goals depend on attachment security, trust, or self-esteem. This article reviews recent studies examining this research question. These studies indicate that compassionate goals predict relationship processes (e.g., responsiveness, constructive approaches to relationship problems, self-disclosure) and well-being (e.g., growth-seeking) regardless of attachment security, trust, and self-esteem. Furthermore, compassionate goals also predict increased attachment security, trust, and self-esteem over time. These findings suggest that people with compassionate goals can cultivate responsive relationships and thrive through relationships even when they have insecurities related to low attachment security, low trust, or low self-esteem.

Understanding the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes: A longitudinal study of college roommates.

Rising rates of depression among adolescents raise many questions about the role of depressive symptoms in academic outcomes for college students and their roommates. In the current longitudinal study, we follow previously unacquainted roommate dyads over their first year in college (N = 245 dyads). We examine the role of depressive symptoms of incoming students and their roommates on their GPAs and class withdrawals (provided by university registrars) at the end of the Fall and Spring semesters. We test contagion between the roommates on both academic outcomes and depressive symptoms over time. Finally, we examine the moderating role of relationship closeness. Whereas students' own initial levels of depressive symptoms predicted their own lower GPA and more course withdrawals, they did not directly predict the academic outcomes of their roommates. For roommates who form close relationships, there was evidence of contagion of both GPAs and depressive symptoms at the end of Fall and Spring semesters. Finally, a longitudinal path model showed that as depressive symptoms spread from the student to their roommate, the roommate's GPA decreased. The current work sheds light on a common college experience with implications for the role of interventions to increase the academic and mental health of college students.

How Relationships Foster Growth: Compassionate Goals Predict Growth-Seeking Through Perceived Available Support Independent of Relationship Security.

Growth-seeking refers to a general tendency to pursue growth when facing challenges. The current studies examined whether and how benevolent intentions to support others and not harm them (i.e., compassionate goals in relationships) predict growth-seeking and whether this association is independent of relationship security, which may also predict growth-seeking. Two cross-sectional studies (Studies 1a and 1b, N = 1,032) and two longitudinal studies (Study 2: 3-wave weekly survey, N = 404; Study 3: 12-wave weekly survey, N = 230) showed that compassionate goals correlate with growth-seeking and predict increased growth-seeking over time through perceived available support. The results hold after controlling for participants' (Studies 1-3) and their partners' (Study 3) relationship security, which suggests that compassionate goals may foster growth-seeking through perceived available support independent of relationship security. In addition, Study 3 suggests an intrapersonal process (i.e., projected perceptions) underlying the link between compassionate goals and perceived available support.

PTSD and PTG in French and American Firefighters: A Comparative Study.

Studies show that experiencing traumatic events can lead to positive psychological change, or posttraumatic growth (PTG). In the hope of promoting PTG, authors have been focusing on identifying the factors that may foster PTG. Despite these attempts, the literature shows inconsistencies, making it difficult to know which variables may be involved in the process of growth. Indeed, authors seem to disagree on the nature of the relationship between PTSD and PTG, time since the event, social support, intrusive rumination, and sociodemographics. Thus, this study aims to clarify these discrepancies, and verify whether the processes involved are the same across two different cultural groups, both of which are confronted with traumatic events regularly: 409 American firefighters, and 407 French firefighters. Results indicate that, in both samples, PTG is positively related to PTSD, subjective perceptions of the event, stress during the event, disruption of core-beliefs, and deliberate rumination; and unrelated to social support, core-self evaluations, and socio-demographic variables (age, gender, relationship status, etc.). However, time since the event and the number of years on the job only predicted PTG in the American sample, while colleague and emotional support only predicted PTG in the French sample. Additionally, American firefighters reported more growth, more social support, more positive self-perceptions, more intrusive rumination, and more neuroticism than French firefighters. These results suggest that the process of growth, as defined by Tedeschi and Calhoun, is relatively stable among firefighters, but that some differences do exist between cultural groups.

College Students' Motives for In-Person Meetings with Dating Application Matches.

Although some research has explored emerging adults' motives for using mobile dating applications, no studies have investigated motives for in-person (or offline) meetings with dating app matches. A sample of 267 U.S. college students completed an online survey, 138 of whom were dating app users and 80 of those had met at least one match in person. Contrary to the popular view that dating apps promote casual sex, love was the top motive for in-person meeting with matches. Our findings are consistent with the idea that dating apps are used to connect with others, not just for hookups.

Empathy-mediated altruism in intergroup contexts: The roles of posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth.

Exposure to war-related violence is associated with greater prosocial behavior. Although researchers point to empathy and individual differences in posttraumatic growth to explain this relationship, there is no direct empirical evidence of the psychological process by which exposure to wartime violence leads to prosociality. In this investigation, we propose and test a comprehensive model of empathy-mediated altruism that addresses both how and when exposure to violence may be associated with prosociality. Results from a large-scale survey experiment conducted in a naturalistic field setting (1,660 refugees from the wars in Syria and Iraq residing in Turkey) indicate that participants reported greater empathy and altruism toward ingroup versus outgroup targets, and that posttraumatic stress predicted less and posttraumatic growth predicted more empathy and altruism. Further, empathy mediated ingroup biases in altruism (i.e., allocation of resources to the self and others); this indirect effect was stronger for those reporting greater posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress. These results support our proposed model of empathy-mediated altruism that incorporates individual differences in response to war violence and ingroup preferences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Romantic Relationships: The Role of Compassionate Goals.

Past research indicates that childhood emotional maltreatment (CEM) undermines the quality of adult romantic relationships by fostering negative characteristics in survivors. Two longitudinal studies investigated the hypothesis that decreased compassionate goals toward partners over time explain the association between CEM and declining relationship quality. In Study 1, CEM predicted decreased compassionate goals over time, which in turn predicted decreased relationship quality in individuals in romantic relationships. Study 2 replicated this effect in romantically involved couples and showed that partners' high compassionate goals attenuated the decline in compassionate goals associated with reported CEM. These results point to the importance of examining how CEM may affect positive relationship processes and the protective roles of partners' compassionate goals.

Prosocial Orientations: Distinguishing Compassionate Goals From Other Constructs.

The compassionate goals scale was developed to assess the intentions underlying prosocial behaviors. Over the past 10 years, it has been shown to predict prosociality. However, research has not yet examined how compassionate goals relate to other measures of prosocial orientations or demonstrated that compassionate goals predict unique variance beyond them. Three studies addressed this shortcoming in the existing literature. Across studies, participants completed measures of compassionate goals, compassionate love, communal orientation, communion, unmitigated communion, and empathic concern. The participants also reported giving to strangers (study 1) and giving to close others (study 2). Study 3 was dyadic in nature-the participants reported their reasons for giving to friends and gratitude, and friends reported their gratitude toward the participants. Despite strong correlations between the compassionate goals scale and other prosocial orientation measures, compassionate goals items are empirically distinct from items assessing other prosocial orientations. The compassionate goals measure accounts for unique variance in giving, reasons for giving, and gratitude. Path analyses support a dyadic process-that compassionate goals predict more other-focused reasons for giving, which then predict friends' gratitude toward the participants. While the compassionate goals measure does overlap with other well-established and commonly used measures of prosocial orientation measures, it accounts for unique variance in giving-related outcomes, suggesting that intentions are an important aspect of prosocial orientations.

Post-traumatic stress and psychological health following infidelity in unmarried young adults.

Infidelity is often conceptualized as a traumatic event; however, little research has explored this topic empirically, particularly in unmarried adults. We determined the prevalence of infidelity-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among unmarried adults who experienced a partner's infidelity and whether probable infidelity-related PTSD was associated with additional psychological health outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and anxiety symptoms). We also investigated whether negative post-traumatic cognitions mediated the associations between infidelity-related PTSD symptoms and psychological health. This study included 73 adults (M age = 19.42, SE = 0.19 years) who experienced infidelity within a committed nonmarital relationship within the last 5 years. Controlling for gender, race, and exposure to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders Criterion A traumas, 45.2% of our sample reported symptoms suggesting probable infidelity-related PTSD. Whether used as continuous or categorical predictor, infidelity-related PTSD symptoms were significantly associated with depressive symptoms, although results for perceived stress and anxiety symptoms were mixed. Post-traumatic cognitions acted as a partial mediator for depressive symptoms and full mediator for perceived stress and anxiety symptoms. This empirical evidence suggests that infidelity may produce PTSD symptoms at a relatively high rate, even in unmarried young adults, and may put individuals at risk for poorer psychological health, partially through post-traumatic cognitions.

Motives and Concerns Associated with Geosocial Networking App Usage: An Exploratory Study Among Heterosexual College Students in the United States.

Geosocial network application (GSNA) use is common among young adults. However, there is little empirical research into patterns of use, motives, and potential concerns among app users. A total of 409 heterosexual students from a public university in the southeast United States participated in an online survey. Sample composition was primarily Caucasian and in their first 2 years of college. Average age was 19.7 years. Results revealed that 39 percent of participants had used a GSN app, and 60 percent of these were regular users. Tinder was the most popular GSNA. Top reasons for app use were for fun (31 percent) and to meet people (11 percent). Very few users reported using them for casual sex encounters (4 percent), although many users (72 percent of men and 22 percent of women) were open to meeting a sexual partner with a GSNA. Regular users were less likely to be in dating relationships. In-person meetings of matches were relatively infrequent among app users. Those who did meet matches were very likely to vet them online in advance, and women were more likely to do so than men. App users rated them as relatively unsafe, women in particular. Top concerns included safety (44 percent), others misrepresenting their identities (35 percent), and privacy (18 percent). Overall, regular app users perceived their use as normative among peers, but they did not view the apps as particularly useful for meeting matches. Although there are few surveys of GSNA use among emerging adults in the United States, some limitations are noted, along with suggestions for future research.

The Association between Compassionate Goals and Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal.

Although research has examined the consequences of relational self-construal, little is known about what psychological factors predict it. Four studies examined the association between compassionate goals and relational self-construal. Study 1 showed that compassionate goals are positively associated with relational self-construal in college students. Study 2 replicated this association among adults in romantic relationships. Studies 3 and 4 showed that compassionate goals predict increased relational self-construals over time in college roommates. Moreover, Studies 2-4 showed that responsiveness to relationship partners statistically mediated the association between compassionate goals and self-construal. These studies suggested that people with compassionate goals have highly relational self-construals and that they also develop higher levels of relational self-construals by being responsive to relationship partners.

Compassionate Goals and Affect in Social Situations.

Optimal social interactions can leave people feeling socially connected and at ease, which has clear implications for health and psychological well-being. Yet, not all social interactions leave people feelings at ease and connected. What explains this variability? We draw from the egosystem-ecosystem theory of social motivation (Crocker & Canevello, 2008) to suggest that compassionate goals to support others explain some of this variability. We explored the nature of this association across 4 studies and varying social contexts. Across studies, compassionate goals predicted greater feelings of ease and connection. Results also indicate that a cooperative mindset may be one mechanism underlying this association: Findings suggest a temporal sequence in which compassionate goals lead to cooperative mindsets, which then lead to feeling at ease and connected. Thus, these studies suggest that people's compassionate goals lead to their sense of interpersonal ease and connection, which may ultimately have implications for their sense of belonging.

Social Motivation: Costs and Benefits of Selfishness and Otherishness.

We examine recent evidence on the consequences of selfishness and otherishness for psychological well-being, physical health, and relationships. In the first sections, we consider recent evidence regarding the costs and benefits of giving time, money, and support to others and the costs and benefits of taking or receiving those things from others. Then, because the behaviors of giving and taking can be motivated either by selfish or otherish concerns, we next consider the costs and benefits of the motivation underlying giving and taking. We also examine why and for whom selfishness and otherishness have consequences for psychological well-being, physical health, and relationships. We focus on mechanisms identified in research, including intrapsychic mechanisms such as positive and negative affect, self-esteem and self-efficacy, a sense of meaning and purpose in life, and a sense of connectedness to or isolation from others, as well as interpersonal processes such as reciprocation of support and responsiveness.

Romantic relationships in the ecosystem: Compassionate goals, nonzero-sum beliefs, and change in relationship quality.

According to the egosystem-ecosystem theory of social motivation, people with ecosystem motivation believe their interpersonal relationships work in nonzero-sum ways. A longitudinal study of individuals in romantic relationships and a study of romantic couples who had a conflict discussion in the laboratory both showed that compassionate goals predict increased nonzero-sum beliefs through increased responsiveness and perceptions of partner's responsiveness and that nonzero-sum beliefs uniquely predict increased relationship quality through increased optimism that relationship problems can be overcome. The results support the view that motivational orientations shape people's lay theories that their relationship works in zero-sum or nonzero-sum ways, and further show that nonzero-sum beliefs are an important and unique predictor of change in relationship quality independent of responsiveness or perceived partner responsiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record

Supporting close others' growth after trauma: The role of responsiveness in romantic partners' mutual posttraumatic growth.

OBJECTIVE: Following a major life crisis, people may simultaneously report both significant distress and positive change or posttraumatic growth (PTG; Calhoun & Tedeschi, 2006). Accumulating evidence has suggested that in close relationships, PTG can be mutual, wherein 1 person's PTG is positively correlated with others' PTG (e.g., Manne et al., 2004). However, the mechanism by which mutual growth occurs is unclear. We suggest that an interpersonal process mediates mutual PTG between partners, and we draw from the social psychology and relationship science literatures to suggest that the interpersonal process of responsiveness may explain people's correlated PTG following trauma. METHOD: Married couples (61 at Time 1; 48 at Time 2) whose homes had been severely damaged by flooding completed measures of PTG, responsiveness to partners, and perceptions of partners' responsiveness at 2 time points, 6 months apart. RESULTS: Findings did not consistently replicate a direct link between actors' and partners' PTG. Results did support an interpersonal process by which actors' PTG predicted their greater responsiveness to partners; partners perceived actors' greater responsiveness, which predicted partners' greater PTG. Further, this interpersonal pathway was independent of known intrapsychic predictors of PTG, social support, and relationship quality. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that close relationships may play an important role in fostering PTG and are the first to outline an interpersonal process by which people experience mutual growth and personal growth can be passed from 1 person to another. (PsycINFO Database Record

Changing Relationship Growth Belief: Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Consequences of Compassionate Goals.

The belief that difficulties can lead to growth in relationships, or growth belief, has consequences for relationships (e.g., Knee, 1998). But what predicts change in this belief? We hypothesized that compassionate goals to support others (Crocker & Canevello, 2008) predict increased growth belief through increased need satisfaction. In Study 1, 199 college freshmen reported their friendship growth belief and goals. In Study 2, 65 roommate pairs reported their roommate growth belief, goals, and need satisfaction. Across studies, compassionate goals predicted increased growth belief. In Study 2, goals predicted increased perceived mutual need satisfaction, which predicted increased growth belief. Additionally, partners' compassionate goals predicted actors' increased growth belief. Results suggest that growth beliefs are shaped by goals - own and others'.

Methodological Overview of A Self-Determination Theory-Based Computerized Intervention to Promote Leisure-Time Physical Activity.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a methodological overview of a computerized intervention to promote leisure time physical activity (PA) and to apply self-determination theory (SDT) to PA initiation to better understand the psychological mechanisms underlying PA frequency, intensity, and duration in previously-sedentary individuals. DESIGN: Based on SDT, two computerized personal trainers were developed for use with sedentary young adults. One personal trainer was designed to be need-supportive, empathic, and structured while the other was designed to be more controlling, evaluative, and judgmental. METHOD: Participants are randomly assigned to work with either the need-supportive or controlling computerized personal trainer. They complete a series of 7 weekly training sessions. In between training sessions, participants complete daily records of PA behaviors and experiences including autonomous self-regulation and perceived competence for PA and PA frequency, intensity, and duration. POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS: The design of this intervention and its theoretical basis have important implications for advancing the field of exercise science specifically and health behavior change more broadly. Computerized interventions have the benefit of standardizing intervention content as well as reducing clinical contact burden for practitioners. Daily recording procedures reduce the likelihood of retrospection bias and allow for the modeling of (1) daily fluctuations in PA behavior and (2) the psychological mechanisms believed to be involved in PA behavior (e.g., autonomous self-regulation). Finally, as a broad theory of human motivation, SDT is uniquely positioned to offer explanations for the conditions that are likely to promote both the initiation and maintenance of health behavior change.

Creating good relationships: responsiveness, relationship quality, and interpersonal goals.

Perceived partner responsiveness is a core feature of close, satisfying relationships. But how does responsiveness originate? Can people create relationships characterized by high responsiveness and, consequently, higher quality relationships? The authors suggest that goals contribute to cycles of responsiveness between two people, improving relationship quality for both of them. The present studies examine (a) how interpersonal goals initiate responsiveness processes in close relationships, (b) the self-perpetuating nature of these processes, and (c) how responsiveness evolves dynamically over time through both intrapersonal projection and reciprocal interpersonal relationship processes. In a semester-long study of 115 roommate dyads, actors' compassionate and self-image goals predicted a cycle of responsiveness between roommates, occurring within weeks and across the semester. In a 3-week study of 65 roommate dyads, actors' goals again predicted cycles of responsiveness between roommates, which then contributed to both actors' and partners' relationship quality. Results suggest that both projection and reciprocation of responsiveness associated with compassionate goals create upward spirals of responsiveness that ultimately enhance relationship quality for both people.

Interpersonal goals and change in anxiety and dysphoria in first-semester college students.

Two longitudinal studies examined the associations between interpersonal goals (i.e., self-image and compassionate goals) and anxiety and dysphoria (i.e., distress). In Study 1, 199 college freshmen (122 women, 77 men) completed 12 surveys over 12 weeks. Compassionate goals predicted decreased distress, and self-image goals predicted increased distress from pretest to posttest when distress was assessed as anxiety, dysphoria, or a composite, and when the goals were worded as approach goals, avoidance goals, or a composite. In Study 2, 115 first-semester roommate pairs (86 female and 29 male pairs) completed 12 surveys over 12 weeks. Compassionate and self-image goals predicted distress in same-week, lagged-week, and pretest-to-posttest analyses; effects of compassionate goals remained significant when the authors controlled for several known risk factors. Having clear goals consistently explained the association between compassionate goals but not self-image goals and distress. Results supported a path model in which compassionate goals predict increased support given to roommates, which predicts decreased distress. Results also supported a reciprocal association; chronic distress predicted decreased compassionate and increased self-image goals from pretest to posttest, and weekly distress predicted decreased compassionate goals the subsequent week. The results suggest that compassionate goals contribute to decreased distress because they provide meaning and increase support given to others. Distress, in turn, predicts change in goals, creating the potential for upward and downward spirals of goals and distress.

Creating and undermining social support in communal relationships: the role of compassionate and self-image goals.

In 2 studies, the authors examined whether relationship goals predict change in social support and trust over time. In Study 1, a group of 199 college freshmen completed pretest and posttest measures of social support and interpersonal trust and completed 10 weekly reports of friendship goals and relationship experiences. Average compassionate goals predicted closeness, clear and connected feelings, and increased social support and trust over the semester; self-image goals attenuated these effects. Average self-image goals predicted conflict, loneliness, and afraid and confused feelings; compassionate goals attenuated these effects. Changes in weekly goals predicted changes in goal-related affect, closeness, loneliness, conflict, and beliefs about mutual and individualistic caring. In Study 2, a group of 65 roommate pairs completed 21 daily reports of their goals for their roommate relationship. Actors' average compassionate and self-image goals interacted to predict changes over 3 weeks in partners' reports of social support received from and given to actors; support that partners gave to actors, in turn, predicted changes in actors' perceived available support, indicating that people with compassionate goals create a supportive environment for themselves and others, but only if they do not have self-image goals.