Surface-associated residues in subtilisins contribute to poly-L-lactic acid depolymerization via enzyme adsorption.

Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) is currently the most abundant bioplastic; however, limited environmental biodegradability and few recycling options diminish its value as a biodegradable commodity. Enzymatic recycling is one strategy for ensuring circularity of PLLA, but this approach requires a thorough understanding of enzymatic mechanisms and protein engineering strategies to enhance activity. In this study, we engineer PLLA depolymerizing subtilisin enzymes originating from Bacillus species to elucidate the molecular mechanisms dictating their PLLA depolymerization activity and to improve their function. The surface-associated amino acids of two closely related subtilisin homologues originating from Bacillus subtilis (BsAprE) and Bacillus pumilus (BpAprE) were compared, as they were previously engineered to have nearly identical active sites, but still varied greatly in PLLA depolymerizing activity. Further analysis identified several surface-associated amino acids in BpAprE that lead to enhanced PLLA depolymerization activity when engineered into BsAprE. In silico protein modelling demonstrated increased enzyme surface hydrophobicity in engineered BsAprE variants and revealed a structural motif favoured for PLLA depolymerization. Experimental evidence suggests that increases in activity are associated with enhanced polymer binding as opposed to substrate specificity. These data highlight enzyme adsorption as a key factor in PLLA depolymerization by subtilisins.

Femoral and acetabular features explain acetabular contact pressure sensitivity to hip internal rotation in persons with cam morphology: A finite element analysis.

BACKGROUND: Femoroacetabular impingement is characterized by premature contact between the proximal femur and acetabulum. The loss of femoral head-neck concavity associated with cam morphology leads to mechanical impingement during hip flexion and internal rotation. Other femoral and acetabular features have been linked with mechanical impingement but have not been comprehensively investigated. This study sought to determine which bony features are most influential in contributing to mechanical impingement in persons with a cam morphology. METHODS: Twenty individuals (10 female, 10 male) with a cam morphology participated. Finite element analyses incorporating subject-specific bony geometry derived from computed tomography scans were used to determine which femoral (alpha angle and femoral neck-shaft angle) and acetabular (anteversion angle, inclination angle, depth, and lateral center-edge angle) features accentuate acetabular contact pressure with increasing degrees of hip internal rotation with the hip flexed to 90°. To determine the best predictors of acetabular contact pressure sensitivity to internal rotation, all morphological variables were included in a stepwise regression with the final model subjected to a bootstrapping procedure. FINDINGS: The stepwise regression revealed that femoral neck-shaft angle, acetabular anteversion angle, acetabular inclination angle, and acetabular depth were the best combination of variables to predict contact pressure sensitivity to internal rotation, explaining 55% of the variance. Results of the bootstrap analysis revealed that a median value of 65% [37%, 89%] variance in sensitivity could be explained by these morphological variables. INTERPRETATION: Mechanical impingement and the concomitant acetabular contact pressure are modulated by multiple femoral and acetabular features in persons with a cam morphology.

Conjugation-Mediated Plasmid Transfer Enables Genetic Modification of Diverse Bacillus Species.

Performing genetic manipulations in Bacillus strains is often hindered by difficulty in identifying conditions appropriate for DNA uptake. This shortcoming limits our understanding of the functional diversity within this genus and the practical application of new strains. We have developed a simple method for increasing the genetic tractability of Bacillus spp. through conjugation-mediated plasmid transfer via a diaminopimelic acid (DAP) auxotrophic Escherichia coli donor strain. We observe transfer into representatives of the Bacillus clades subtilis, cereus, galactosidilyticus, and Priestia megaterium and successfully applied this protocol to 9 out of 12 strains attempted. We utilized the BioBrick 2.0 plasmids pECE743 and pECE750, as well as the CRISPR plasmid pJOE9734.1, to generate a xylose-inducible green-fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing conjugal vector, pEP011. The use of xylose-inducible GFP ensures ease of confirming transconjugants, which enables users to quickly rule out false positives. Additionally, our plasmid backbone offers the flexibility to be used in other contexts, including transcriptional fusions and overexpression, with only a few modifications. IMPORTANCE Bacillus species are widely used to produce proteins and to understand microbial differentiation. Unfortunately, outside a few lab strains, genetic manipulation is difficult and can prevent thorough dissection of useful phenotypes. We developed a protocol that utilizes conjugation (plasmids that initiate their own transfer) to introduce plasmids into a diverse range of Bacillus spp. This will facilitate a deeper study of wild isolates for both industrial and pure research uses.

Synergistic Mutations Create Bacillus Subtilisin Variants with Enhanced Poly-l-Lactic Acid Depolymerization Activity.

Enzymatic recycling of poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) plastic has recently become an area of interest; however, investigation of enzymatic mechanisms and engineering strategies to improve activity remains limited. In this study, we have identified a subtilisin from Bacillus pumilus that has the ability to depolymerize high-molecular-weight PLLA. We performed a comparative, mutational analysis of this enzyme with a less active homologue from Bacillus subtilis to determine residues favored for activity. Our results demonstrate that both enzymes contain residues favored for PLLA depolymerization, with the generation of several hyperactive variants. In silico modeling suggests that increases in activity are due to opening of the binding pockets and increased surface hydrophobicity. Combinations of hyperactive mutations have synergistic effects with the generation of subtilisin variants with 830- and 184-fold increases in activity for B. subtilis and B. pumilus subtilisins, respectively. One B. pumilus subtilisin variant can visibly dissolve high-molecular-weight PLLA films.

Gluteal activation during squatting reduces acetabular contact pressure in persons with femoroacetabular impingement syndrome: A patient-specific finite element analysis.

BACKGROUND: Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome is a motion-related clinical disorder resulting from abnormal hip joint morphology. Mechanical impingement, in which the aspherical femoral head (cam morphology) abuts with the acetabular rim, is created with simultaneous hip flexion, internal rotation, and adduction. Impaired function of the gluteal muscles may be contributory to femoroacetabular impingement syndrome progression. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of gluteal muscle recruitment on acetabular contact pressure during squatting in persons with cam femoroacetabular impingement syndrome. METHODS: Eight individuals (4 males, 4 females) with a diagnosis of cam femoroacetabular impingement syndrome underwent CT imaging of the pelvis and proximal femora, and a biomechanical assessment of squatting (kinematics, kinetics, and electromyography). Two maximal depth bodyweight squat conditions were evaluated: 1) non-cued squatting; and 2) cued gluteal activation squatting. Utilizing subject-specific electromyography-driven hip and finite element modeling approaches, hip muscle activation, kinematics, bone-on-bone contact forces, and peak acetabular contact pressure were compared between squat conditions. FINDINGS: Modest increases in gluteus maximus (7% MVIC, P < 0.0001) and medius (6% MVIC, P = 0.009) activation were able to reduce hip internal rotation on average 5° (P = 0.024), and in doing so reduced acetabular contact pressure by 32% (P = 0.023). Reductions in acetabular contact pressure occurred despite no change in hip abduction and increased bone-on-bone contact forces occurring in the cued gluteal activation condition. INTERPRETATION: Our findings highlight the importance of gluteal activation in minimizing mechanical impingement and provide a foundation for interventions aimed at preventing the development and progression of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome.

Exacerbating patellofemoral pain alters trunk and lower limb coordination patterns and hip-knee mechanics.

The exacerbation of patellofemoral pain (PFP) may lead to compensatory trunk and lower limb movement patterns in order to minimize patellofemoral joint loading. However, joint kinematics are often analysed in isolation, which limits the understanding of how the underlying segments were coordinated to produce limb postures and distribute load across the limb. In this study we used a dynamical systems approach to investigate how women with PFP coordinate trunk, hip, and knee motion and distribute hip-knee moment demands following symptom exacerbation. Coordination patterns and coordination variability of the trunk, hip, and knee from 61 women with PFP were obtained during stair descent, ascent, and step down tasks, before and after a pain exacerbation protocol. Hip-knee extensor moment impulse ratio was also calculated. Following the exacerbation of PFP, women utilized knee dominant coordination patterns less often (p = 0.039-0.027; d = 0.51-0.53), while coordination patterns with the trunk leaning forward were utilized more during stair negotiation (p = 0.043-<0.001; d = 0.52-0.96). Although no significant differences in hip-knee coordination patterns were found, there was an increase in the hip-knee impulse ratio during stair negotiation (p = 0.014-<0.001; d = 0.27-0.36). These findings seem to display a movement strategy utilized by women with PFP in order to distribute more load to the hip joint and less to the knee joint, possibly in an attempt to avoid/manage pain.

Activation training facilitates gluteus maximus recruitment during weight-bearing strengthening exercises.

Given its tri-planar action at the hip, strengthening of gluteus maximus (GMAX) has been advocated as part of rehabilitation and injury prevention protocols for various musculoskeletal conditions. However, recruitment of GMAX during weight-bearing strengthening exercises can be challenging owing to the muscular redundancy at the hip for a given joint motion. The current study sought to determine if a 1-week activation program could result in greater GMAX recruitment during functional strengthening exercises. Pre- and post-training surface electromyography were collected from 12 healthy participants as they performed double- and single-leg squats. Between testing sessions, participants completed a GMAX activation training program consisting of isometric exercises with band resistance (twice per day for 7 days). Following the 1-week activation program, GMAX recruitment was found to increase by 57% during the double-leg squat (p = 0.005, Cohen's r = 0.73) and 53% during the single-leg squat (p = 0.006, Cohen's r = 0.70). Implementation of an initial GMAX activation program should be considered to facilitate neuromuscular adaptations that facilitate utilization of GMAX during hip strengthening exercises.

Injury risk-factor differences between two golf swing styles: a biomechanical analysis of the lumbar spine, hip and knee.

The golf swing has been associated with mechanical injury risk factors at many joints. One swing, the Minimalist Golf Swing, was hypothesised to reduce lumbar spine, lead hip, and lead knee ranges of motion and peak net joint moments, while affecting swing performance, compared to golfers' existing swings. Existing and MGS swings of 15 golfers with handicaps ranging from +2 to -20 were compared. During MGS downswing, golfers had 18.3% less lumbar spine transverse plane ROM, 40.7 and 41.8% less lead hip sagittal and frontal plane ROM, and 39.2% less lead knee sagittal plane ROM. MGS reduced lead hip extensor, abductor, and internal rotator moments by 17.8, 19.7 and 43%, while lead knee extensor, abductor, adductor and external rotator moments were reduced by 24.1, 26.6, 37 and 68.8% respectively. With MGS, club approach was 2° shallower, path 4° more in-to-out and speed 2 m/s slower. MGS reduced certain joint ROM and moments that are linked to injury risk factors, while influencing club impact factors with varying effect. Most golf injuries are from overuse, so reduced loads per cycle with MGS may extend the healthy life of joints, and permit golfers to play injury-free for more years.

Trunk Inclination During Squatting is a Better Predictor of the Knee-Extensor Moment Than Shank Inclination.

CONTEXT: A limitation of previous studies on squatting mechanics is that the influence of trunk and shank inclination on the knee-extensor moment (KEM) has been studied in isolation. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the current study was to determine the influence of segment orientation on the KEM during freestanding barbell squatting. DESIGN: Repeated-measures cross sectional. SETTING: University research laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Sixteen healthy individuals (8 males and 8 females). INTERVENTION: Each participant performed 8 squat conditions in which shank and trunk inclinations were manipulated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: 3D kinematic and kinetic data were collected at 250 and 1500 Hz, respectively. Regression analysis was conducted to identify the individual relationships between the KEM and the trunk and shank inclination at 60° and 90° of knee flexion. To identify the best predictor(s) of the KEM, stepwise regression was implemented. RESULTS: Increased shank inclination increased the KEM (P < .001, R2 = .21-.25). Conversely, increased trunk inclination decreased the KEM (P < .001, R2 = .49-.50). For the stepwise regression, trunk inclination entered first and explained the greatest variance in the KEM (all P < .001, R2 = .49-.50). Shank inclination entered second (all P < .010, R2 = .53-.54) and explained an additional 3% to 5% of the variance. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm that inclination of the trunk and shank have an opposing relationship with the KEM. Increased forward shank posture increases the KEM, while increased forward trunk posture decreases the KEM. However, when viewed in combination, the trunk was the superior predictor of the KEM, highlighting the fact that increased quadriceps demand created by a forward shank can be offset by trunk inclination.

Increased core stability is associated with reduced knee valgus during single-leg landing tasks: Investigating lumbar spine and hip joint rotational stiffness.

Knee valgus during landing has been identified as a strong correlate of ACL injury. Inappropriate trunk control during landing contributes to high knee valgus, with neuromuscular factors related to core stability postulated as the mechanism. This investigation probed the influence of trunk and hip mechanics, including joint stiffness, on knee mechanics, particularly high knee valgus. Specifically, this study quantified lumbar spine and hip joint rotational stiffness (a proxy for mechanical joint stability) during single-leg landing tasks known to be associated with injury risk, particularly in females. Kinematics, kinetics, and 24 channels of electromyography spanning the trunk and hip musculature were measured in 18 healthy female participants. Anatomically detailed EMG-driven musculoskeletal models quantified lumbar spine and hip joint rotational stiffness. The links between peak knee abduction angle and moment with lumbar spine and hip joint rotational stiffness were measured. Hip joint rotational stiffness influenced knee abduction across tasks (correlation coefficient ranging from -0.48 to -0.70, p < 0.05) to reduce valgus deviation. Similarly, transverse plane hip joint rotational stiffness during landings reduced knee abduction moment (R = -0.50, P = 0.03; R = -0.49, P = 0.04), and lumbar spine joint rotational stiffness reduced knee abduction angle and moment but did not consistently reach statistical significance. The control system uses stiffness to control motion. This study demonstrates the importance of proximal (lumbar spine and hip) joint rotational stiffness (i.e. core control stability) during single-leg landing to prevent knee abduction motion. Instantaneous core stability is achieved with the coordinated activation and stiffness of both trunk and hip muscles.

Influence of the exacerbation of patellofemoral pain on trunk kinematics and lower limb mechanics during stair negotiation.

BACKGROUND: Although it is assumed that the presence of patellofemoral pain (PFP) may result in compensatory behaviors that can alter trunk kinematics and lower limb mechanics, the influence of the exacerbation of patellofemoral pain on trunk kinematics and lower limb mechanics during stair negotiation has not been established. RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the exacerbation of PFP symptoms lead to altered trunk kinematics and lower limb mechanics during stair negotiation? METHODS: Three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics were obtained from 45 women with PFP during stair descent and ascent. Data were obtained before and after a pain exacerbation protocol. The variables of interest were peak trunk, hip, and knee flexion, and ankle dorsiflexion; peak hip, and knee extensor, and ankle plantarflexor moments. Paired t-tests were used to compare the variables of interest before and after pain exacerbation. RESULTS: Following pain exacerbation, there was a decrease in peak knee extensor moment during stair descent (Effect size = -0.68; p = 0.01) and stair ascent (Effect size = -0.56; p = 0.02); as well as in peak ankle dorsiflexion during stair descent (Effect size = -0.33; p = 0.01) and stair ascent (Effect size = -0.30; p = 0.01). An increase in ankle plantarflexor moment during stair descent (Effect size = 0.79; p < 0.01) and stair ascent (Effect size = 0.89; p < 0.01) was also observed. No significant differences were observed for peak trunk, hip, and knee flexion or hip extensor moment (p > 0.05). SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings show compensatory strategies used by people with PFP in response to symptoms exacerbation that may have a negative impact on knee and ankle mechanics. Our findings also suggest that people with PFP do not seem to change their trunk, hip, and knee flexion or hip extensor moment during stair negotiation in response to symptom exacerbation.

Pathomechanics Underlying Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome: Theoretical Framework to Inform Clinical Practice.

Over the last decade, there has been a marked increase in attention to, and interest in, femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS). Despite continued efforts by researchers and clinicians, the development, progression, and appropriate treatment of FAIS remains unclear. While research across various disciplines has provided informative work in various areas related to FAIS, the underlying pathomechanics, time history, and interaction between known risk factors and symptoms remain poorly understood. The purpose of this perspective is to propose a theoretical framework that describes a potential pathway for the development and progression of FAIS. This paper aims to integrate relevant knowledge and understanding from the growing literature related to FAIS to provide a perspective that can inform future research and intervention efforts.

Sequence alignments and validation of PCR primers used to detect phylogenetically diverse nrfA genes associated with dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA).

PCR primer sets were designed to target nrfA, the gene encoding the pentaheme nitrite reductase NrfA that catalyzes the nitrite ammonification step in the process of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA). Details of the nucleotide alignments of the primer target regions of 271 nrfA sequences from reference genomes representing 18 distinct clades of NrfA are shown here along with validation of application to PCR-based methodology including the use of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) profiling and Illumina platform amplicon-based sequencing of environmental samples and selected reference strains. Summary data tables illustrate the specificity of forward primers nrfAF2awMOD and nrfAF2awMODgeo when paired with the new reverse primer nrfAR1MOD in relation to consensus target reference sequences associated with members of 18 NrfA clades. Specificity of the new primers to nrfA sequences in environmental samples is shown in AFLP analysis and amino acid-translated amplicon sequences obtained with the new primer sets. We also provide sequence alignment files of the full length nrfA genes, PCR reference amplicon alignment, NrfA amino-acid alignment and NrfA translated PCR amplicon-amino acid alignment. The full nucleotide and protein alignments contain 271 reference genomes that represent the 18 identified NrfA clades as a tool to further aid practitioners in examining new sequences corresponding to the primer target regions and allow further primer design modifications if deemed pertinent to specific studies. A more comprehensive analysis of this data may be obtained from ("Optimization of PCR primers to detect phylogenetically diverse nrfA genes associated with nitrite ammonification" Cannon et al., 2019).

Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Mechanisms and the Kinetic Chain Linkage: The Effect of Proximal Joint Stiffness on Distal Knee Control During Bilateral Landings.

BACKGROUND: Neuromuscular deficits at the trunk and hip may contribute to dynamic knee valgus and anterior cruciate ligament injury mechanisms. However, comprehensive examination of neuromuscular patterns and their mechanical influence is lacking. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the influence of lumbar spine joint rotational stiffness (JRS) and the gluteal musculature contribution to hip JRS on dynamic knee valgus. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 18 university-aged women completed a drop vertical jump while we measured kinematics, kinetics, and 24 channels of electromyography (EMG) spanning the trunk and hip musculature. We classified each limb as high or low valgus, based on frontal plane knee displacement magnitude. We used anatomically detailed, EMG-driven biomechanical models to quantify lumbar spine JRS and muscle contributions to hip JRS. RESULTS: Low-valgus limbs generated greater gluteus medius frontal JRS (P = .002; effect size, 1.3) and gluteus maximus transverse JRS (P = .003; effect size, 1.2) compared to high-valgus limbs. Participants with bilateral high-valgus collapse had substantially reduced lumbar spine sagittal JRS compared to the group with low valgus on both limbs (P = .05; effect size, 5.1). Those with low valgus on both limbs also had a peak lumbar spine flexion angle of 24° ± 4°, compared to the bilateral high-valgus group's angle of 38° ± 10° (P = .09; effect size, 1.8). CONCLUSION: Participants who avoided high medial knee displacement had greater proximal JRS. Increased JRS at the lumbar spine and greater JRS contributions from the gluteal musculature are linked with preventing high medial knee displacement. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2019;49(8):601-610. Epub 26 May 2019. doi:10.2519/jospt.2019.8248.

Optimization of PCR primers to detect phylogenetically diverse nrfA genes associated with nitrite ammonification.

Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) is now known to be a more prevalent process in terrestrial ecosystems than previously thought. The key enzyme, a pentaheme cytochrome c nitrite reductase NrfA associated with respiratory nitrite ammonification, is encoded by the nrfA gene in a broad phylogeny of bacteria. The lack of reliable and comprehensive molecular tools to detect diverse nrfA from environmental samples has hampered efforts to meaningfully characterize the genetic potential for DNRA in environmental systems. In this study, modifications were made to optimize the amplification efficiency of previously-designed PCR primers, targeting the diagnostic region of NrfA between the conserved third- and fourth heme binding domains, and to increase coverage to include detection of environmentally relevant Geobacteraceae-like nrfA. Using an alignment of the primers to >270 bacterial nrfA genes affiliated with 18 distinct clades, modifications to the primer sequences improved coverage, minimized amplification artifacts, and yielded the predicted product sizes from reference-, soil-, and groundwater DNA. Illumina sequencing of amplicons showed the successful recovery of nrfA gene fragments from environmental DNA based on alignments of the translated sequences. The new primers developed in this study are more efficient in PCR reactions, although gene targets with high GC content affect efficiency. Furthermore, the primers have a broader spectrum of detection and were validated rigorously for use in detecting nrfA from natural environments. These are suitable for conventional PCR, qPCR, and use in PCR access array technologies that allow multiplex gene amplification for downstream high throughput sequencing platforms.

Evidence on the Ability of a Pneumatic Decompression Belt to Restore Spinal Height Following an Acute Bout of Exercise.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of a pneumatic decompression belt to restore spinal height lost following an acute bout of exercise that induced compression. METHODS: This study implemented a test-retest repeated measures design in which twelve participants (male = 10, female = 2) age, 21.5 ± 1.0 years; height, 179.0 ± 7.70 cm; weight, 84.0 ±11.5 kg; were recruited from a university population and acted as their own control. All participants were healthy with no previous history of disabling back pain, and were frequent weight trainers. A stadiometer was used to measure spinal height at baseline, then following an acute bout of exercise and then again following the intervention (use of a pneumatic decompression belt for 20 minutes) or control (lying supine for 20 minutes). A 2-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed on the change in spinal height in order to evaluate differences between measurement phases and intervention conditions. RESULTS: The use of the decompression belt increased spinal height gain (4.3 ± 3.0 mm) significantly more than the control condition (1.8 ± 1.2 mm) following an acute bout of weightlifting exercises known to elicit high compressive loads on the lumbar spine. CONCLUSION: The pneumatic decompression belt restored spinal height faster than a non-belt wearing condition in young healthy asymptomatic participants.

Can fitness and movement quality prevent back injury in elite task force police officers? A 5-year longitudinal study.

Elite police work has bursts of intense physically demanding work requiring high levels of fitness, or capacity, and movement competency; which are assumed to increase one's injury resilience. The purpose of this study was to follow members of an elite police force (N = 53) to test whether back injuries (N = 14) could be predicted from measures of fitness and movement quality. Measures of torso endurance, relative and absolute strength, hip ROM and movement quality using the Functional Movement Screen(TM) and other dynamic movement tests were obtained from every officer at baseline. When variables were grouped and considered holistically, rather than individually, back injury could be predicted. Seven variables best predicted those who would suffer a back injury (64% sensitivity and 95% specificity for an overall concordance of 87%). Overall, the ability to predict back injury was not high, suggesting that there is more complexity to this relationship than is explained with the variables tested here. Practitioner Summary: Members of elite police forces have exposure to intense physically demanding work. Increased levels of fitness and movement competency have been assumed to increase injury resilience. However, complexity in the interactions between exposure, movement competency, training, fitness and injury may occlude the true relationship between these variables.

Muscle activity and spine load during anterior chain whole body linkage exercises: the body saw, hanging leg raise and walkout from a push-up.

This study examined anterior chain whole body linkage exercises, namely the body saw, hanging leg raise and walkout from a push-up. Investigation of these exercises focused on which particular muscles were challenged and the magnitude of the resulting spine load. Fourteen males performed the exercises while muscle activity, external force and 3D body segment motion were recorded. A sophisticated and anatomically detailed 3D model used muscle activity and body segment kinematics to estimate muscle force, and thus sensitivity to each individual's choice of motor control for each task. Gradations of muscle activity and spine load characteristics were observed across tasks. On average, the hanging straight leg raise created approximately 3000 N of spine compression while the body saw created less than 2500 N. The hanging straight leg raise created the highest challenge to the abdominal wall (>130% MVC in rectus abdominis, 88% MVC in external oblique). The body saw resulted in almost 140% MVC activation of the serratus anterior. All other exercises produced substantial abdominal challenge, although the body saw did so in the most spine conserving way. These findings, along with consideration of an individual's injury history, training goals and current fitness level, should assist in exercise choice and programme design.

Muscle activity and spine load during pulling exercises: influence of stable and labile contact surfaces and technique coaching.

This study examined pulling exercises performed on stable surfaces and unstable suspension straps. Specific questions included: which exercises challenged particular muscles, what was the magnitude of resulting spine load, and did technique coaching influence results. Fourteen males performed pulling tasks while muscle activity, external force, and 3D body segment motion were recorded. These data were processed and input to a sophisticated and anatomically detailed 3D model that used muscle activity and body segment kinematics to estimate muscle force, in this way the model was sensitive to each individual's choice of motor control for each task. Muscle forces and linked segment joint loads were used to calculate spine loads. There were gradations of muscle activity and spine load characteristics to every task. It appears that suspension straps alter muscle activity less in pulling exercises, compared to studies reporting on pushing exercises. The chin-up and pull-up exercises created the highest spine load as they required the highest muscle activation, despite the body "hanging" under tractioning gravitational load. Coaching shoulder centration through retraction increased spine loading but undoubtedly adds proximal stiffness. An exercise atlas of spine compression was constructed to help with the decision making process of exercise choice for an individual.