Absence of IL-6 Receptor Blockade Effect on the Outcomes of Transplant Glomerulopathy in the Absence of Anti-HLA Donor-specific Antibodies.

Background: Transplant glomerulopathy (TG) is the hallmark of chronic antibody-mediated rejection but often occurs without anti-HLA donor-specific antibodies (DSAs) in the assumption that other DSAs may be the effectors of the tissue injury. Recently, we reported a positive effect of interleukin-6 (IL-6) receptor blocker tocilizumab (TCZ) in TG/DSA+. In the present study, we investigate the effect of TCZ in a cohort of TG cases without detectable anti-HLA DSAs. Methods: Single-center retrospective analysis of TG cases without anti-HLA DSAs (TG/DSA) treated with TCZ for chronic antibody-mediated rejection as first-line therapy evaluated through clinical, protocol biopsies, and gene expression analyses was included. Results: Differently from TG/DSA+, TG/DSA- showed a progressive reduction in the estimated glomerular filtration rate at 12 mo and after that with no significant modification in microvascular inflammation or C4d+. No upregulation in tight junction protein-1, aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase, documented in TG/DSA+, was noted in post-TCZ biopsies. The reduction of microvascular inflammation was associated with natural killer-cell reduction in TG/DSA+, whereas TG/DSA- tends to maintain or increase periglomerular/interstitial infiltration. Conclusions: In the absence of anti-HLA DSAs, TG behavior seems not to be modified by IL-6 receptor blockade. These results are at variance with observational studies and previous trials with IL-6 inhibitors in TG associated with anti-HLA DSAs. These data may fuel the hypothesis of different mechanisms underlying TGs (including the potentially different roles of natural killer cells) and suggest carefully selecting patients with TG for clinical trials or off-label treatment based on their antidonor serologic status.

Validation of a Simple, Rapid, and Cost-Effective Method for Acute Rejection Monitoring in Lung Transplant Recipients.

Despite advances in immunosuppression therapy, acute rejection remains the leading cause of graft dysfunction in lung transplant recipients. Donor-derived cell-free DNA is increasingly being considered as a valuable biomarker of acute rejection in several solid organ transplants. We present a technically improved molecular method based on digital PCR that targets the mismatch between the recipient and donor at the HLA-DRB1 locus. Blood samples collected sequentially post-transplantation from a cohort of lung recipients were used to obtain proof-of-principle for the validity of the assay, correlating results with transbronchial biopsies and lung capacity tests. The results revealed an increase in dd-cfDNA during the first 2 weeks after transplantation related to ischemia-reperfusion injury (6.36 ± 5.36%, p < 0.0001). In the absence of complications, donor DNA levels stabilized, while increasing again during acute rejection episodes (7.81 ± 12.7%, p < 0.0001). Respiratory tract infections were also involved in the release of dd-cfDNA (9.14 ± 15.59%, p = 0.0004), with a positive correlation with C-reactive protein levels. Overall, the dd-cfDNA percentages were inversely correlated with the lung function values measured by spirometry. These results confirm the value of dd-cfDNA determination during post-transplant follow-up to monitor acute rejection in lung recipients, achieved using a rapid and inexpensive approach based on the HLA mismatch between donor and recipient.

HLA-DRB1 mismatch-based identification of donor-derived cell free DNA (dd-cfDNA) as a marker of rejection in heart transplant recipients: A single-institution pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Donor-derived cell-free DNA (dd-cfDNA) is considered a reliable marker of organ damage with potential applications in the follow-up of transplant recipients. METHODS: In this work we present an assay based on the donor-recipient HLA-mismatch (human leukocyte antigen) at the HLA-DRB1 locus to monitor rejection by quantifying the percentage of dd-cfDNA using a droplet digital PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technique. A panel of probes targeting the HLA-DRB1 locus and covering >85% genetic variability was validated and used to assess dd-cfDNA levels in a prospective cohort of 19 adult heart transplant recipients (mean age 50.9±14.8 years). The assay was carried out on a total of 232 liquid biopsies collected at the same time as endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) during routine post-transplant follow-up. RESULTS: Results show a significant increase of dd-cfDNA related to ischemia-reperfusion injury (2.22±2.09%) and to acute cellular rejection (1.71±3.10%) compared to stable conditions (0.43±1.04%, p < 0.0001). On the contrary, no increase was observed during infections or vascular complications, underlining the potential role of this biomarker for rejection monitoring. With a cut-off of 0.11%, the test showed 70.8% specificity (95% CI, 58.17% - 81.40%) and 64.2% sensitivity (95% CI, 49.80% - 76.86%) in discriminating acute rejection from no rejection. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that this HLA mismatch-based droplet digital PCR method is effective for monitoring rejection in heart transplant recipients. Compared to next generation sequencing approaches, it is far more flexible, less expensive and provides faster results.

Early effects of first-line treatment with anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody tocilizumab for chronic active antibody-mediated rejection in kidney transplantation.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic active antibody-mediated rejection (cAMR) is a major determinant of late allograft failure. Rituximab/immunoglobulins (IVIg) + plasma exchange (PLEX) showed controversial results in cAMR treatment. Tocilizumab (TCZ), a humanized anti-interleukin 6 receptor antibody, has been recently used as rescue therapy in patients non-responsive to rituximab/IVIg/PLEX with favorable outcomes. Whether TCZ acts "per se" or requires a priming effect from previous treatments is currently unknown. METHODS: Fifteen patients with cAMR were treated with TCZ as a first-line therapy and followed for a median time of 20.7 months. RESULTS: Despite the majority of patients experiencing advanced transplant glomerulopathy (TG) at diagnosis (60% with cg3), glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria stabilized during the follow-up, with a significant reduction in donor-specific antibodies. Protocol biopsies after 6 months demonstrated significant amelioration of microvascular inflammation and no TG, C4d deposition, or IF/TA progression. Gene-expression and immunofluorescence analysis showed upregulation of three genes (TJP-1, AKR1C3, and CASK) involved in podocyte, mesangial, and tubular restoration. CONCLUSION: Tocilizumab adopted as a first-line approach in cAMR was associated with early serological and histological improvements and functional stabilization even in advanced TG, suggesting a role for the use of TCZ alone with the avoidance of unnecessary previous immunosuppressants.

Treatment with plasmapheresis, immunoglobulins and rituximab for chronic-active antibody-mediated rejection in kidney transplantation: Clinical, immunological and pathological results.

AIM: To evaluate the role of a therapeutic regimen with plasma exchange, intravenous immunoglobulins and rituximab in chronic-active antibody-mediated rejection (cAMR) settings. METHODS: We compared 21 kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) with a diagnosis of cAMR in a retrospective case-control analysis: nine KTRs treated with plasmapheresis, intravenous immunoglobulins and rituximab (PE-IVIG-RTX group) vs 12 patients (control group) not treated with antibody-targeted therapies. We examined kidney survival and functional outcomes 24 mo after diagnosis. Histological features and donor-specific antibody (DSA) characteristics (MFI and C1q-fixing ability) were also investigated. RESULTS: No difference in graft survival between the two groups was noted: three out of nine patients in the PE-IVIG-RTX group (33.3%) and 4/12 in the control group (33.3%) experienced loss of allograft function at a median time after diagnosis of 14 mo (min 12-max 18) and 15 mo (min 7-max 22), respectively. Kidney functional tests and proteinuria 24 mo after cAMR diagnosis were also similar in both groups. Only microvascular inflammation (glomerulitis + peritubular capillaritis score) was significantly reduced after PE-IVIG-RTX in seven out of eight patients (87.5%) in the PE-IVIG-RTX group (median score 3 in pre-treatment biopsy vs 1.5 in post-treatment biopsy; P = 0.047), without any impact on kidney survival and/or DSA characteristics. No functional or histological parameter at diagnosis was predictive of clinical outcome. CONCLUSION: Our data showed no difference in the two year post-treatment outcome of kidney grafts treated with PE-IVIG-RTX for cAMR diagnosis, however there were notable improvements in microvascular inflammation in post-therapy protocol biopsies. Further studies, especially involving innovative therapeutic approaches, are required to improve the management and long-term results of this severe condition.

Detection of Angiotensin II type I-receptor antibodies in transplant glomerulopathy.

BACKGROUND: Transplant glomerulopathy (TG) is an important cause of late graft loss. The role of angiotensin type 1-receptor antibodies (AT1 R-Ab) in TG is not known. METHODS: All the TG cases (N = 137) between January 2007 and December 2014 (N = 1410) were analyzed. Donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies (DSA) at the time of biopsy and AT1 R-Ab IgG (positive, >17 UI/mL; "at risk," 10-17 UI/mL; negative, <10 UI/mL) in pre-transplant sera (PT-Ab) and at biopsy time (BT-Ab) were studied. RESULTS: AT1 R-PT-Ab+ and AT1 R-BT-Ab+ patients were 16.5% (51.5% "at risk") and 11.5% (27.4% "at risk"), respectively. Clinical correlations were found between AT1 R-Ab and HCV infection, number of transplants, and age. Considering Banff scores, ptc was higher in DSA+ patients vs AT1 R-PT-Ab+ (P = 0.002) or AT1 R-BT-Ab+ (P = 0.001) without differences in g and chronicity score (ci + ct); cg showed lower scores in DSA+ patients vs AT1 R-BT-Ab+ (P = 0.001). Graft survival was not influenced by the presence of AT1 R-Ab, AT1-R-Ab titer or MFI, but we observed a longer graft survival in patients with both AT1 R-BT-Ab+ or "at risk" and DSA+ vs patients positive only for DSA (P = 0.02), for AT1 R-BT-Ab (P = 0.019) or AT1 R-BT-Ab "at risk" (P = 0.039). CONCLUSION: AT1 R-Ab showed no independent prognostic role in TG in this pilot analysis.

Protein disulfide isomerase A3-specific Th1 effector cells infiltrate colon cancer tissue of patients with circulating anti-protein disulfide isomerase A3 autoantibodies.

To investigate novel colorectal cancer (CRC)-associated antigens that could be targets of humoral or cellular responses, we analyzed the reactivity of serum from a long-surviving CRC patient (for more than 100 months of follow-up) in clinical remission, by serologic proteome analysis. Two-dimensional Western blotting (2D-WB) and mass spectrometry analysis revealed a strong reactivity of this serum against protein disulfide isomerase A3 (PDIA3). Anti-PDIA3 antibodies are not a diagnostic marker of CRC, 2D-WB and Luminex analysis revealed that they were equally present in about 10% of sera from healthy subjects and CRC patients. Kaplan-Meier analysis of survival in CRC patient cohort, after 48 months of follow-up, showed a trend of higher survival in patients with increased levels of autoantibodies to PDIA3. Therefore, the interplay between the presence of these antibodies and T-cell response was investigated. Peripheral blood T cells from CRC patients with high immunoglobulin G (IgG) reactivity to PDIA3 also secreted interferon gamma (IFN-γ) when stimulated in vitro with recombinant PDIA3, whereas those from CRC with low IgG reactivity to PDIA3 did not. PDIA3-pulsed dendritic cells efficiently induced proliferation and IFN-γ production of autologous CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Finally, ex vivo analysis of tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes from CRC patients with autoantibodies to PDIA3 revealed that PDIA3-specific Th1 effector cells accumulated in tumor tissue. These data indicate that the presence of autoantibodies to PDIA3 favors the development of an efficient and specific T-cell response against PDIA3 in CRC patients. These results may be relevant for the design of novel immunotherapeutic strategies in CRC patients.

Human mesenchymal stem cells and derived extracellular vesicles induce regulatory dendritic cells in type 1 diabetic patients.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can exert an immunosuppressive effect on any component of the immune system, including dendritic cells (DCs), by direct contact, the release of soluble markers and extracellular vesicles (EVs). We evaluated whether MSCs and MSC-derived EVs have an immunomodulatory effect on monocyte-derived DCs in type 1 diabetes. METHODS: Bone marrow derived MSCs were characterised and EVs were obtained by ultracentrifugation. DCs were differentiated from CD14(+) cells, obtained from nine type 1 diabetic patients at disease onset, pulsed with antigen GAD65 and cultured with MSCs or EVs. Levels of DC maturation and activation markers were evaluated by flow cytometry. GAD65-pulsed DCs and autologous CD14(-) cell were co-cultured and IFN-γ enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot responses were assayed. Secreted cytokine levels were measured and Th17 and regulatory T cells were analysed. RESULTS: MSC- and EV-conditioned DCs acquired an immature phenotype with reduced levels of activation markers and increased IL-10 and IL-6 production. Conditioned DC plus T cell co-cultures showed significantly decreased IFN-γ spots and secretion levels. Moreover, higher levels of TGF-ß, IL-10 and IL-6 were detected compared with unconditioned DC plus T cell co-cultures. Conditioned DCs decreased Th17 cell numbers and IL-17 levels, and increased FOXP3(+) regulatory T cell numbers. EVs were internalised by DCs and EV-conditioned DCs exhibited a similar effect. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In type 1 diabetes, MSCs induce immature IL-10-secreting DCs in vitro, thus potentially intercepting the priming and amplification of autoreactive T cells in tissue inflammation. These DCs can contribute to the inhibition of inflammatory T cell responses to islet antigens and the promotion of the anti-inflammatory, regulatory responses exerted by MSCs.

Phosphorylated alpha-enolase induces autoantibodies in HLA-DR8 pancreatic cancer patients and triggers HLA-DR8 restricted T-cell activation.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the fourth cause of cancer-induced death in the Western World. In PDAC patients, alpha-enolase (ENOA), a glycolytic enzyme that also acts as plasminogen receptor, is up-regulated and elicits the production of autoantibodies. Our previous studies revealed that most PDAC patients specifically produce antibodies to Serine(419)phosphorylated ENOA (Ser(419)P-ENOA) isoforms (ENOA1,2), and that this humoral response correlates with a better clinical outcome. Since autoantibody production can be influenced by HLA polymorphisms, and the ENOA sequence presents multiple peptides predicted to preferentially bind HLA-DR molecules, including the peptide containing Ser(419), we hypothesized that the presence of autoantibodies against ENOA1,2 is associated with specific HLA-DRB1 alleles. Here, we demonstrate that the HLA-DRB1*08 allele is significantly more frequent in PDAC patients with autoantibodies to ENOA1,2 (ENOA1,2(+), 8%) compared to healthy controls (3%, p=0.0112). We observed that a Ser(419)P-ENOA peptide, bioinformatically predicted to bind with high affinity to the HLA-DR8 allele coded by HLA-DRB1*08:01 or *08:04 alleles, was able to activate specific CD4(+) T cell clones derived from a HLA-DRB1*08:01. Thus complexes of the Ser(419)P-ENOA peptide with the HLA that trigger T-cell signaling might be relevant for induction of anti-tumor immune response.

NADPH oxidase (NOX2) activity is a modifier of survival in ALS.

NADPH-oxidases (NOX) catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play a role in the development of neurological diseases, particularly those generated by the phagocytic isoform NOX2. Increased ROS has been observed in the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) SOD1 transgenic mouse, and in this preclinical model the inactivation of NOX2 decreases ROS production and extends survival. Our aim was to evaluate NOX2 activity measuring neutrophil oxidative burst in a cohort of 83 ALS patients, and age- and gender-matched healthy controls. Oxidative burst was measured directly in fresh blood using Phagoburst™ assay by flow cytometry. Mean fluorescence intensity (MFI), emitted in response to different stimuli, leads to produce ROS and corresponds to the percentage of oxidizing cells and their enzymatic activity (GeoMean). No difference was found between the MFI values in cases and controls. NOX2 activity was independent from gender and age, and in patients was not related to disease duration, site of onset (bulbar vs. spinal), or ALSFRS-R score. However, patients with a NOX2 activity lower than the median value showed a 1-year increase of survival from onset (p = 0.011). The effect of NOX2 was independent from other known prognostic factors. These findings are in keeping with the observations in the mouse model of ALS, and demonstrate the strong role of NOX2 in modifying progression in ALS patients. A proper modulation of NOX2 activity might hold therapeutic potential for ALS.

Human mesenchymal stem cell-derived microvesicles modulate T cell response to islet antigen glutamic acid decarboxylase in patients with type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to abrogate in vitro the proinflammatory response in type 1 diabetes. The mechanism involves paracrine factors, which may include microvesicles (MVs). We evaluated whether MVs derived from heterologous bone-marrow MSCs exert an immunomodulatory effect on T cell responses against GAD (glutamic acid decarboxylase) antigen in type 1 diabetes. METHODS: MVs were purified from heterologous human MSCs by differential centrifugation. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from patients with type 1 diabetes at disease onset, and responses to GAD65 stimulation were assessed by IFN-γ enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot analysis. Levels of cytokines and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were measured in the supernatant fraction, and T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory T cell analysis was performed. RESULTS: MVs were internalised by PBMCs, as assessed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry analyses. MVs significantly decreased IFN-γ spots and levels in GAD65-stimulated PBMCs, and significantly increased transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß), IL-10, IL-6 and PGE2 levels. Furthermore, MVs decreased the number of Th17 cells and the levels of IL-17, and increased FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells in GAD65-stimulated PBMCs. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These results provide evidence that MSC-derived MVs can inhibit in vitro a proinflammatory response to an islet antigenic stimulus in type 1 diabetes. The action of MVs involves PGE2 and TGF-ß signalling pathways and IL-10 secretion, suggesting a switch to an anti-inflammatory response of T cells.

Chimeric rat/human HER2 efficiently circumvents HER2 tolerance in cancer patients.

PURPOSE: Despite the great success of HER2 vaccine strategies in animal models, effective clinical results have not yet been obtained. We studied the feasibility of using DNA coding for chimeric rat/human HER2 as a tool to break the unresponsiveness of T cells from patients with HER2-overexpressing tumors (HER2-CP). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Dendritic cells (DCs) generated from patients with HER2-overexpressing breast (n = 28) and pancreatic (n = 16) cancer were transfected with DNA plasmids that express human HER2 or heterologous rat sequences in separate plasmids or as chimeric constructs encoding rat/human HER2 fusion proteins and used to activate autologous T cells. Activation was evaluated by IFN-γ ELISPOT assay, perforin expression, and ability to halt HER2+ tumor growth in vivo. RESULTS: Specific sustained proliferation and IFN-γ production by CD4 and CD8 T cells from HER2-CP was observed after stimulation with autologous DCs transfected with chimeric rat/human HER2 plasmids. Instead, T cells from healthy donors (n = 22) could be easily stimulated with autologous DCs transfected with any human, rat, or chimeric rat/human HER2 plasmid. Chimeric HER2-transfected DCs from HER2-CP were also able to induce a sustained T-cell response that significantly hindered the in vivo growth of HER2(+) tumors. The efficacy of chimeric plasmids in overcoming tumor-induced T-cell dysfunction relies on their ability to circumvent suppressor effects exerted by regulatory T cells (Treg) and/or interleukin (IL)-10 and TGF-ß1. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide the proof of concept that chimeric rat/human HER2 plasmids can be used as effective vaccines for any HER2-CP with the advantage of being not limited to specific MHC. Clin Cancer Res; 20(11); 2910-21. ©2014 AACR.

Human mesenchymal stem cells modulate cellular immune response to islet antigen glutamic acid decarboxylase in type 1 diabetes.

CONTEXT: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exert an immunosuppressive effect on the immune system. However, studies on the immunomodulatory potential of MSCs in type 1 diabetes are lacking. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate whether human MSCs may inhibit in vitro pancreatic islet antigen-specific T cell activation in type 1 diabetes. DESIGN: Human MSCs were isolated and characterized. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from nine type 1 diabetic patients at disease onset and 13 healthy control subjects. IFN-gamma, IL-10, and IL-4 enzyme-linked immunospot responses of lymphocytes incubated with glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) were investigated in PBMC cultures and PBMC/MSC cocultures. Levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), IFN-gamma, IL-4, and IL-10 in supernatants were measured by ELISA. PGE2 inhibition experiments with NS-398 and indomethacin were also performed. RESULTS: Five diabetic patients were identified with a positive PBMC IFN-gamma response to GAD65 and negative IL-10 and IL-4 response. PBMC/MSC cocultures resulted in a significant decrease in the number of spots and in detection of IL-4-secreting cells. PGE2 inhibitors abrogated the immune-suppressive effect, indicating an involvement of PGE2 production, and the constitutive production of PGE2 by MSCs was enhanced in PBMC/MSC coculture. Moreover, in GAD-responder patients, GAD-stimulated PBMC/MSC cocultures significantly decreased secretion of IFN-gamma and IL-10 and increased secretion of IL-4. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence that human MSCs abrogate in vitro a proinflammatory T helper type 1 response to an islet antigenic stimulus in type 1 diabetes. MSCs induce IL-4-producing cells, suggesting a possible switch to an antiinflammatory T helper type 2 signaling of T cells.

Lack of plasma protein hemopexin dampens mercury-induced autoimmune response in mice.

Several factors affect the autoimmune response, including iron-dependent modulation of T cells. Hemopexin is the plasma protein with the highest binding affinity to heme. It mediates heme-iron recovery in the liver, thus controlling heme-iron availability in peripheral cells. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of hemopexin in the progress of an autoimmune response. To this end, we chose a mouse model of mercury-induced autoimmunity and evaluated the susceptibility of hemopexin-null mice to mercury treatment compared with wild-type controls. In this study we show that lack of hemopexin dampens mercury-induced autoimmune responses in mice. Hemopexin-null mice produced fewer antinuclear autoantibodies and had reduced deposits of immune complexes in the kidney after mercuric chloride treatment compared with wild-type mice. These features were associated with a reduction in activated T cells and lower absolute B cell number in spleen and impaired IgG1 and IgG2a production. In contrast, in hemopexin-null mice the response to OVA/CFA immunization was maintained. In addition, hemopexin-null mice had reduced transferrin receptor 1 expression in T cells, possibly due to the increase in heme-derived iron. Interestingly, CD4(+)T cells isolated from mercury-treated hemopexin-null mice show reduced IFN-gamma-dependent STAT1 phosphorylation compared with that of wild-type mice. Our data suggest that hemopexin, by controlling heme-iron availability in lymphocytes, modulates responsiveness to IFN-gamma and, hence, autoimmune responses.

Lactoferrin, a major defense protein of innate immunity, is a novel maturation factor for human dendritic cells.

Lactoferrin (LF) is an important protein component of the innate immune system that is broadly distributed within the body fluids. LF is endowed with multiple biological activities. Talactoferrin (TLF), a recombinant human LF, is in clinical development as an anticancer agent and is entering Phase III clinical trials. Here, we show that TLF induces the maturation of human dendritic cells (DCs) derived from monocytes. TLF, at physiologically relevant concentrations (100 microg/ml) up-regulates the expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II, CD83, CD80, and CD86 costimulatory molecule and CXCR4 and CCR7 chemokine receptors, acting primarily through the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. DCs matured by TLF displayed an enhanced release of IL-8 and CXCL10, as well as a significantly reduced production of IL-6, IL-10, and CCL20. They also display a reduced ability to take up antigen and increased capacity to trigger proliferation and release IFN-gamma in the presence of allogeneic human T cells. TLF-matured DCs are able to prime naive T cells to respond to KLH antigen and display a significantly increased capacity to present Flu-MA(58-66) peptide to HLA-A2-matched T cells. These data suggest that a key immunomodulatory function that may be mediated by TLF is to link the innate with adaptive immunity through DC maturation.

CC-chemokine ligand 16 induces a novel maturation program in human immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are indispensable for initiation of primary T cell responses and a host's defense against infection. Many proinflammatory stimuli induce DCs to mature (mDCs), but little is known about the ability of chemokines to modulate their maturation. In the present study, we report that CCL16 is a potent maturation factor for monocyte-derived DCs (MoDCs) through differential use of its four receptors and an indirect regulator of Th cell differentiation. MoDCs induced to mature by CCL16 are characterized by increased expression of CD80 and CD86, MHC class II molecules, and ex novo expression of CD83 and CCR7. They produce many chemokines to attract monocytes and T cells and are also strong stimulators in activating allogeneic T cells to skew toward Th1 differentiation. Interestingly, they are still able to take up Ag and express chemokine receptors usually bound by inflammatory ligands and can be induced to migrate to different sites where they capture Ags. Our findings indicate that induction of MoDC maturation is an important property of CCL16 and suggest that chemokines may not only organize the migration of MoDCs, but also directly regulate their ability to prime T cell responses.

CCL16/LEC powerfully triggers effector and antigen-presenting functions of macrophages and enhances T cell cytotoxicity.

The human CC chemokine CCL16, a liver-expressed chemokine, enhances the killing activity of mouse peritoneal macrophages by triggering their expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and Fas ligand. Macrophages also respond to CCL16 by enhancing their production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, regulated on activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted chemokines, and interleukin (IL)-1 beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-12. The effect of CCL16 is almost as strong as that of lipopolysaccharide and interferon-gamma, two of the best macrophage activators. Moreover, CCL16-activated macrophages overexpress membrane CD80, CD86, and CD40 costimulatory molecules and extensively phagocytose tumor cell debris. On exposure to such debris, they activate a strong, tumor-specific, cytolytic response in virgin T cells. Furthermore, cytolytic T cells generated in the presence of CCL16 display a higher cytotoxicity and activate caspase-8 in tumor target cells. This ability to activate caspase-8 depends on their overexpression of TNF-alpha and Fas ligand induced by CCL16. These data reveal a new function for CCL16 in the immune-response scenario. CCL16 significantly enhances the effector and the antigen-presenting function of macrophages and augments T cell lytic activity.

LAG-3 enables DNA vaccination to persistently prevent mammary carcinogenesis in HER-2/neu transgenic BALB/c mice.

Within 33 weeks of life, all 10 mammary glands of virgin BALB/c mice transgenic for the transforming rat HER-2/neu oncogene under the mammary tumor virus promoter (BALB-neuT mice) progress from atypical hyperplasia to invasive palpable carcinoma. Repeated DNA vaccination with plasmids coding for the extracellular and transmembrane domain of the protein product of rat HER-2/neu (r-p185(neu)) delayed tumor onset and reduced tumor multiplicity, but this protection eventually declined, and few mice were tumor free at 1 year of age. Association of plasmid vaccination with administration of soluble mouse LAG-3 (lymphocyte activation gene-3/CD223) generated by fusing the extracellular domain of murine LAG-3 to a murine IgG2a Fc portion (mLAG-3Ig) elicited a stronger and sustained protection that kept 70% of 1-year-old mice tumor free. Moreover, this combined vaccination, which was performed when multiple in situ carcinomas were already evident, extended disease-free survival and reduced carcinoma multiplicity. Inhibition of carcinogenesis was associated with markedly reduced epithelial cell proliferation and r-p185(neu) expression, whereas the few remaining hyperplastic foci were heavily infiltrated by reactive leukocytes. A stronger and enduring r-p185(neu)-specific cytotoxicity, a sustained release of IFN-gamma and interleukin 4, and a marked expansion of both CD8(+)/CD11b(+)/CD28(+) effector and CD8(+)/CD11b(+)/CD28(-) memory effector T-cell populations were induced in immunized mice. This combined vaccination also elicited a quicker and higher antibody response to r-p185(neu), as well as an early antibody isotype switch. These data suggest that the appropriate costimulation provided by mLAG-3Ig enables DNA vaccination to establish an effective protection, probably by enhancing cross-presentation of the DNA coded antigen.