The use of coagulant and natural soil to control cyanobacterial blooms in a tropical reservoir.

Cyanobacterial blooms have been a growing problem in water bodies and attracted attention from researcher and water companies worldwide. Different treatment methods have been researched and applied either inside water treatment plants or directly into reservoirs. We tested a combination of coagulants, polyaluminium chloride (PAC) and iron(III) chloride (FeCl3), and ballasts, luvisol (LUV) and planosol (PLAN), known as the 'Floc and Sink' technique, to remove positively buoyant cyanobacteria from a tropical reservoir water. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on Central Composite Design (CCD) was used to optimize the two reaction variables - coagulant dosage (x1) and ballast dosage (x2) to remove the response variables: chlorophyll-a, turbidity, true color, and organic matter. Results showed that the combination of LUV with PAC effectively reduced the concentration of the response variables, while PLAN was ineffective in removing cyanobacteria when combined to PAC or FeCl3. Furthermore, FeCl3 presented poorer floc formation and lower removal efficiency compared to PAC. This study may contribute to the theoretical and practical knowledge of the algal biomass removal for mitigating eutrophication trough different dosages of coagulants and ballasts.

Understanding the properties of activated carbon and biochar for the adsorption and removal of cyanotoxins: a systematic review.

Cyanotoxins pose a health threat when present in the drinking water supply since conventional water treatment processes are not effective in removing extracellular metabolites hence, advanced treatment techniques are usually applied. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) is an effective adsorbent for removing toxins. However, since a high volume is necessary, alternative adsorbents have been investigated. Biochar, especially from renewable sources, is a potential adsorbent material that could replace PAC for removing toxins. This paper aimed to investigate which PAC properties play key roles in cyanotoxin adsorption by a systematic review addressing the adsorption of toxins such as microcystins-LR (MC-LR), cylindrospermopsin (CYL), and saxitoxins (STXs). As a result, the review showed that some commonly adopted indices (i.e. total surface area) are not relevant to cyanotoxin adsorption, especially if appraised alone. Along with a multi-barrier approach, PAC has to be applied taking into account the complexity of the water system, which includes a better understanding of the characteristics of the adsorbent, the target toxin, and the aqueous medium. The biochar systematic review showed that no studies have yet been designed specifically for the removal of toxins. Since biochar has not yet been applied to water treatment processes, the knowledge gap is even greater than for PAC.

Cyanobacterial bloom monitoring and assessment in Latin America.

Cyanobacterial blooms have serious adverse effects on human and environmental health. In Latin America, one of the main world's freshwater reserves, information on this phenomenon remains sparse. To assess the current situation, we gathered reports of cyanobacterial blooms and associated cyanotoxins in freshwater bodies from South America and the Caribbean (Latitude 22° N to 45° S) and compiled the regulation and monitoring procedures implemented in each country. As the operational definition of what is a cyanobacterial bloom remains controversial, we also analyzed the criteria used to determine the phenomena in the region. From 2000 to 2019, blooms were reported in 295 water bodies distributed in 14 countries, including shallow and deep lakes, reservoirs, and rivers. Cyanotoxins were found in nine countries and high concentrations of microcystins were reported in all types of water bodies. Blooms were defined according to different, and sometimes arbitrary criteria including qualitative (changes in water color, scum presence), quantitative (abundance), or both. We found 13 different cell abundance thresholds defining bloom events, from 2 × 103 to 1 × 107 cells mL-1. The use of different criteria hampers the estimation of bloom occurrence, and consequently the associated risks and economic impacts. The large differences between countries in terms of number of studies, monitoring efforts, public access to the data and regulations regarding cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins highlights the need to rethink cyanobacterial bloom monitoring, seeking common criteria. General policies leading to solid frameworks based on defined criteria are needed to improve the assessment of cyanobacterial blooms in Latin America. This review represents a starting point toward common approaches for cyanobacterial monitoring and risk assessment, needed to improve regional environmental policies.

In situ H2O2 treatment of blue-green algae contaminated reservoirs causes significant improvement in drinking water treatability.

The evaluation of water quality improvement brought about by in situ treatment of eutrophic water bodies, especially those used for human supply is a challenging task since each water system responds differently. To overcome this challenge, we applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to understand the effects of using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on eutrophic water used as a drinking water supply. This analysis was used to identify the main factors that described the water treatability after exposing blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) contaminated raw water to H2O2 at both 5 and 10 mg L-1. Cyanobacterial chlorophyll-a was undetectable following the application of both concentrations of H2O2 after four days, while not causing relevant changes to green algae and diatoms chlorophyll-a concentrations. EFA demonstrated that the main factors affected by both H2O2 concentrations were turbidity, pH, and cyanobacterial chlorophyll-a concentration, which are important variables for a drinking water treatment plant. The H2O2 caused significant improvement in water treatability by decreasing those three variables. Finally, the use of EFA was demonstrated to be a promising tool in identifying which limnological variables are most relevant concerning the efficacy of water treatment, which in turn can make water quality monitoring more efficient and less costly.

Suppressing cyanobacterial dominance by UV-LED TiO2-photocatalysis in a drinking water reservoir: A mesocosm study.

Cyanobacteria and their toxic secondary metabolites present challenges for water treatment globally. In this study we have assessed TiO2 immobilized onto recycled foamed glass beads by a facile calcination method, combined in treatment units with 365 nm UV-LEDs. The treatment system was deployed in mesocosms within a eutrophic Brazilian drinking water reservoir. The treatment units were deployed for 7 days and suppressed cyanobacterial abundance by 85% while at the same time enhancing other water quality parameters; turbidity and transparency improved by 40 and 81% respectively. Genomic analysis of the microbiota in the treated mesocosms revealed that the composition of the cyanobacterial community was affected and the abundance of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria increased during cyanobacterial suppression. The effect of the treatment on zooplankton and other eukaryotes was also monitored. The abundance of zooplankton decreased while Chrysophyte and Alveolata loadings increased. The results of this proof-of-concept study demonstrate the potential for full-scale, in-reservoir application of advanced oxidation processes as complementary water treatment processes.

Qualidade da água em um sistema de reservatórios em cascata - um estudo de caso no semiárido brasileiro / Water quality in a cascade reservoir system - a case study in the Brazilian semiarid region

RESUMO A escassez hídrica e o aumento da demanda de água para usos múltiplos incentivaram a construção de diversos reservatórios e sistemas de transferências hídricas entre bacias hidrográficas em diversas partes do mundo, principalmente em regiões áridas e semiáridas. Apesar de essas medidas mitigarem os aspectos quantitativos do abastecimento, a diminuição da qualidade da água disponível pode se tornar uma limitação importante. Este estudo teve por objetivo avaliar a qualidade da água no sistema de transferência que abastece a Região Metropolitana de Fortaleza, Ceará. Foram analisados 20 parâmetros de qualidade de água ao longo do sistema. Aplicou-se em seguida a análise de agrupamento utilizando a distância euclidiana associada ao método de ligação de Ward para agrupar os 13 pontos de coleta que foram estabelecidos conforme suas similaridades. A piora da qualidade da água ficou evidente ao longo do sistema, com o aumento da concentração de cianobactérias, pH, nitrogênio total, oxigênio dissolvido, turbidez e clorofila-a. Com relação às cianobactérias, duas espécies mostraram-se dominantes — Oscillatoria sp. e Microcystis sp. — e sete abundantes — Merismopedia sp., Cylindrospermopsis sp., Pseudanabaena sp., Anabaena sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Aphanocapsa sp. e Dolichospermum sp. A presença de cianobactérias potencialmente tóxicas e a piora da qualidade da água tornam a realização de monitoramentos frequentes e o desenvolvimento de sistemas de alerta essenciais para a adequada gestão dos recursos hídricos, tanto do ponto de vista ambiental quanto do de saúde pública.

ABSTRACT Water scarcity and increasing water demand for multiple uses encourage the construction of reservoirs and water transfer systems between watersheds in various parts of the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Although these measures may mitigate the quantitative aspects of water supply, the quality decrease of the available water may become an important limitation. This study aimed to evaluate the water quality in the water transfer system that supplies the metropolitan region of Fortaleza, Ceará. Twenty water quality parameters were analyzed throughout the system followed by the application of the Euclidean distance and Ward's method to group the 13 sampling points according to their similarities. The worsening of the water quality was evident with increasing cyanobacterial concentration, pH, total nitrogen, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and chlorophyll-a. Regarding cyanobacteria, two species were dominant: Oscillatoria sp. and Microcystis sp. while seven were abundant: Merismopedia sp., Cylindrospermopsis sp., Pseudanabaena sp., Anabaena sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Aphanocapsa sp. e Dolichospermum sp. The presence of potentially toxic cyanobacteria and the worsening of water quality make frequent monitoring and the development of alert systems essential for the management of water resources, both from an environmental and public health point of view.

Uso do peróxido de hidrogênio no controle de cianobactérias - uma perspectiva bioquímica / Use of hydrogen peroxide in the control of cyanobacteria - a biochemical perspective

RESUMO As florações de cianobactérias vêm aumentando em intensidade e frequência em todo o mundo, ameaçando a sustentabilidade dos recursos aquáticos e o abastecimento humano. A construção de reservatórios, o uso de fertilizantes artificiais e o descarte de esgotos não tratados são os principais motores dessa expansão. As alterações climáticas, como o aquecimento global, as chuvas e as secas extremas, têm contribuído para a acelerar esse processo. Qualquer medida de mitigação dessas florações deve considerar os impactos sobre os outros organismos, os custos, além dos resíduos gerados. Nessa perspectiva, a aplicação do peróxido de hidrogênio em reservatórios artificiais traz uma série de vantagens para o controle a curto prazo, sendo uma das principais a destruição seletiva de cianobactérias. Apesar de vários estudos indicarem que as cianobactérias são o alvo preferencial do peróxido de hidrogênio, uma explicação bioquímica desse fenômeno ainda não foi encontrada. Este trabalho, portanto, procura congregar assuntos relacionados a esse tema e traz também uma coletânea de experiências recentes sobre o uso em escala real do peróxido de hidrogênio, apontando as principais lacunas de conhecimento que deverão ser preenchidas caso sua utilização em reservatórios seja para abastecimento. Uma das lacunas a ser preenchida está relacionada às vantagens do peróxido de hidrogênio sobre outros métodos de controle, pois apresentam maior eficiência no controle de cianobactérias posto que são preferencialmente destruídos pelo peróxido de hidrogênio, em relação aos fitoplânctons, sendo, dessa forma, importante o estudo de técnicas de aplicação do peróxido de hidrogênio em reservatórios de grande porte.

ABSTRACT Cyanobacterial blooms are increasing in intensity and frequency throughout the world, threatening the sustainability of aquatic resources and human supplies. The construction of reservoirs, the use of artificial fertilizers and the disposal of untreated sewage are the main engines of this expansion. Climate change, such as global warming, rainfall and extreme droughts, has contributed to accelerate this process. Any mitigation measure of the blooms should consider the impacts on the other organisms, the costs beyond the waste generated. In this perspective, the application of hydrogen peroxide in the artificial reservoirs has a number of advantages for short-term control, one of the main ones being the selective destruction of cyanobacteria. Although several studies indicate that cyanobacteria are the preferred target of hydrogen peroxide, a biochemical explanation for this phenomenon has not yet been found. This work, therefore, seeks to gather subjects related to this topic and brings a collection of recent experiences on the real scale use of hydrogen peroxide, pointing out the main knowledge gaps that should be filled if their use in reservoirs is for supply. One of the gaps to be filled is related to the advantages of hydrogen peroxide over other control methods, as they present greater efficiency in the control of cyanobacteria, as they are preferentially destroyed by hydrogen peroxide in relation to phytoplankton, therefore, it is important to study the application techniques of hydrogen peroxide in large reservoirs.

Potentially Poisonous Plastic Particles: Microplastics as a Vector for Cyanobacterial Toxins Microcystin-LR and Microcystin-LF.

The potential of microplastics to act as a vector for micropollutants of natural or anthropogenic origin is of rising concern. Cyanobacterial toxins, including microcystins, are harmful to humans and wildlife. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time the potential of microplastics to act as vectors for two different microcystin analogues. A concentration of up to 28 times from water to plastic was observed for the combination of polystyrene and microcystin-LF achieving toxin concentrations on the plastic of 142 ± 7 µg g-1. Based on the experimental results, and assuming a worst-case scenario, potential toxin doses for daphnids are calculated based on published microplastic ingestion data. Progressing up through trophic levels, theoretically, the concentration of microcystins in organisms is discussed. The experimental results indicate that adsorption of microcystins onto microplastics is a multifactorial process, depending on the particle size, the variable amino acid composition of the microcystins, the type of plastic, and pH. Furthermore, the results of the current study stressed the limitations of exclusively investigating microcystin-LR (the most commonly studied microcystin congener) as a model compound representing a group of around 250 reported microcystin congeners.

Comparison of UV-A photolytic and UV/TiO2 photocatalytic effects on Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7813 and four microcystin analogues: A pilot scale study.

To date, the high cost of supplying UV irradiation has prevented the widespread application of UV photolysis and titanium dioxide based photocatalysis in removing undesirable organics in the water treatment sector. To overcome this problem, the use of UV-LEDs (365 nm) for photolysis and heterogeneous photocatalysis applying TiO2 coated glass beads under UV-LED illumination (365 nm) in a pilot scale reactor for the elimination of Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7813 and four microcystin analogues (MC-LR, -LY, -LW, -LF) with a view to deployment in drinking water reservoirs was investigated. UV-A (365 nm) photolysis was shown to be more effective than the UV/TiO2 photocatalytic system for the removal of Microcystis aeruginosa cells and microcystins. During photolysis, cell density significantly decreased over 5 days from an initial concentration of 5.8 × 106 cells mL-1 until few cells were left. Both intra- and extracellular microcystin concentrations were significantly reduced by 100 and 92 %, respectively, by day 5 of the UV treatment for all microcystin analogues. During UV/TiO2 treatment, there was great variability between replicates, making prediction of the effect on cyanobacterial cell and toxin behavior difficult.

Hazardous cyanobacteria integrity response to velocity gradient and powdered activated carbon in water treatment plants.

Although some studies have investigated the impact caused by chemicals used on water treatment (coagulants and oxidants) on cyanobacteria integrity, the isolated effect of shear stress during coagulation is still not fully understood. This study evaluated the impact of different velocity gradients, mixing times, and the addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) on the integrity of Microcystis aeruginosa, Raphidiopsis raciborskii, and Dolichospermum circinale, known producers of toxin and taste and odor (T&O) compounds. No association was found between R. raciborskii cell lysis and velocity gradient, with or without PAC, demonstrating the high resilience of this taxon to shear stress. In contrast, an association was found for M. aeruginosa at the highest velocity gradient evaluated (1000 s-1) and for D. circinale above the lowest velocity gradient studied (600 s-1). After PAC addition, there was a reduction in the chances of finding M. aeruginosa intact cells above velocity gradient 800 s-1 at 45 s, while D. circinale show cell lysis in all the scenarios expect at 600 s-1 and 10 s of agitation. The additional impact of PAC on cell lysis may lead to more release of metabolites and shows the need to adjust the hydraulic conditions in the rapid mixing stage, especially when more "fragile" cyanobacteria are present. Neither cyanobacterial cell size nor morphology was shown to be relevant to shear stress sensitivity, indicating that cell wall composition might have been an important factor in controlling cell lysis.

Effect of hydrogen peroxide on natural phytoplankton and bacterioplankton in a drinking water reservoir: Mesocosm-scale study.

Cyanobacterial blooms are increasingly reported worldwide, presenting a challenge to water treatment plants and concerning risks to human health and aquatic ecosystems. Advanced oxidative processes comprise efficient and safe methods for water treatment. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has been proposed as a sustainable solution to mitigate bloom-forming cyanobacteria since this group presents a higher sensitivity compared to other phytoplankton, with no major risks to the environment at low concentrations. Here, we evaluated the effects of a single H2O2 addition (10 mg L-1) over 120 h in mesocosms introduced in a reservoir located in a semi-arid region presenting a Planktothrix-dominated cyanobacterial bloom. We followed changes in physical and chemical parameters and in the bacterioplankton composition. H2O2 efficiently suppressed cyanobacteria, green algae, and diatoms over 72 h, leading to an increase in transparency and dissolved organic carbon, and a decrease in dissolved oxygen and pH, while nutrient concentrations were not affected. After 120 h, cyanobacterial abundance remained low and green algae became dominant. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that the original cyanobacterial bloom was composed by Planktothrix, Cyanobium and Microcystis. Only Cyanobium increased in relative abundance at 120 h, suggesting regrowth. A prominent change in the composition of heterotrophic bacteria was observed with Exiguobacterium, Paracoccus and Deinococcus becoming the most abundant genera after the H2O2 treatment. Our results indicate that this approach is efficient in suppressing cyanobacterial blooms and improving water quality in tropical environments. Monitoring changes in abiotic parameters and the relative abundance of specific bacterial taxa could be used to anticipate the regrowth of cyanobacteria after H2O2 degradation and to indicate where in the reservoir H2O2 should be applied so the effects are still felt in the water treatment plant intake.

Removal of Dolichospermum circinale, Microcystis aeruginosa, and their metabolites using hydrogen peroxide and visible light.

Frequent cyanobacterial blooms in reservoirs used for human supply increase the risk of noxious secondary metabolites, endangering human health and ecological balance, and requiring constant monitoring by water companies. Although hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) has been widely reported as an effective agent for the control of cyanobacteria, being Microcystis aeruginosa one of the most studied species, very limited data is available on its effects over Dolichospermum circinale. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of H2O2 on D. circinale and comparing it to the effects over the M. aeruginosa. The treatment was performed in cyanobacterial cultures with the application of 2 and 5 mg L-1 of H2O2 under visible light. To measure the impact of the treatment, intact cells were counted and cell re-growth monitored. Geosmin and microcystin, cell pigments, color, and organic matter in water were also analyzed during the treatment. The results showed that even the smallest H2O2 concentration (2 mg L-1) was able to completely remove D. circinale cells. Although M. aeruginosa could only be completely removed using 5 mg L-1, the few cells remaining after the application of 2 mg L-1 were not viable and did not re-grew after 15 days. Total microcystin concentration increased after M. aeruginosa was exposed to H2O2, suggesting that oxidative stress may increase the detection of this metabolite when the cells are lysed. While 2 mg L-1 was able to significantly decrease total geosmin, the addition of 5 mg L-1 did not improve removal. Chlorophyll-a was readily degraded after cell rupture but the same did not happen to phycocyanin, demonstrating its high resilience to this oxidant. Color and organic matter increased for the M. aeruginosa but decreased for the D. circinale suspension, probably because the higher concentration of the M. aeruginosa yielded more extracellular content to the water which was not able to be degraded by the amount of H2O2 applied.

Oxidative stress in the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7813: Comparison of different analytical cell stress detection assays.

Cyanobacterial blooms are observed when high cell densities occur and are often dangerous to human and animal health due to the presence of cyanotoxins. Conventional drinking water treatment technology struggles to efficiently remove cyanobacterial cells and their metabolites during blooms, increasing costs and decreasing water quality. Although field applications of hydrogen peroxide have been shown to successfully suppress cyanobacterial growth, a rapid and accurate measure of the effect of oxidative stress on cyanobacterial cells is required. In the current study, H2O2 (5 and 20 mg L-1) was used to induce oxidative stress in Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7813. Cell density, quantum yield of photosystem II, minimal fluorescence and microcystin (MC-LR, -LY, -LW, -LF) concentrations were compared when evaluating M. aeruginosa cellular stress. Chlorophyll content (determined by minimal fluorescence) decreased by 10% after 48 h while cell density was reduced by 97% after 24 h in samples treated with 20 mg L-1 H2O2. Photosystem II quantum yield (photosynthetic activity) indicated cyanobacteria cell stress within 6 h, which was considerably faster than the other methods. Intracellular microcystins (MC-LR, -LY, -LW and -LF) were reduced by at least 96% after 24 h of H2O2 treatment. No increase in extracellular microcystin concentration was detected, which suggests that the intracellular microcystins released into the surrounding water were completely removed by the hydrogen peroxide. Thus, photosynthetic activity was deemed the most suitable and rapid method for oxidative cell stress detection in cyanobacteria, however, an approach using combined methods is recomended for efficient water treatment management.

Modeling geosmin removal in a full-scale filter.

Taste and odor compounds affect drinking water safety perception and may drive consumers to less secure water sources. Adsorption, using powered activated carbon, is the most common method to remove these compounds but greatly increases the amount of sludge generated. Another way of removing taste and odor compounds is to use filters with granular activated carbon (GAC) but little is still known on how to design them. In this work, the homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) was used to model bench-scale kinetic and isotherm experiments and to simulate the removal of geosmin in a full-scale GAC filter. Geosmin adsorption isotherm was best described by the Freundlich model in all used carbons and film resistance (Kf) was more relevant to adsorption kinetics than pore diffusion (Ds). The simulation showed that in a filter with an empty bed contact time of 5 minutes and raw water with geosmin concentrations of 50, 75, and 100 ng.L-1, the effluent would exceed the trash-hold concentration (10 ng.L-1) in 98, 77, and 66 days, respectively, without considering biological removal.

The role of hydraulic conditions of coagulation and flocculation on the damage of cyanobacteria.

Limited information exists on the damage of harmful cyanobacteria cells, such as Raphidiopsis raciborskii and Dolichospermum circinale, caused by the hydraulic conditions at water treatment plants especially when it comes to the mechanical stresses imposed by coagulation and flocculation. To close this gap, this study evaluated the impacts of rapid and slow-mixing on R. raciborskii and D. circinale cells and trichomes. The hydraulic conditions used during the experiment were selected based on AWWA, which are widely applied in the absence of specific treatability tests. Cellular integrity was evaluated by the Erythrosine B staining method and logistic regression was used to study the association between organism integrity and hydraulic conditions (i.e., velocity gradient and mixing time). Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to verify if there was a significant reduction of the trichome length and cell integrity. Rapid-mixing (velocity gradient of 750 s-1 for 60 s) reduced the odds of finding intact D. circinale to <50%, whereas the odds of finding intact R. raciborskii cells did not significantly decrease. The odds of finding intact cells of R. raciborskii were 124 times greater than D. circinale. Rapid-mixing also reduced the length of D. circinale trichomes by approximately 50% but did not significantly decrease R. raciborskii trichomes. Slow-mixing did not significantly affect organisms or trichomes of either species. The results indicate that AWWA recommendations for coagulation may cause damage to D. circinale but not to R. raciborskii, suggesting that the operation of water treatment plants could be adjusted according to the dominant cyanobacterium present in the reservoir to avoid cell rupture and metabolite release.

Photocatalytic removal of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7813 and four microcystins by TiO2 coated porous glass beads with UV-LED irradiation.

Cyanobacteria and their toxic secondary metabolites are a challenge in water treatment due to increased biomass and dissolved metabolites in the raw water. Retrofitting existing water treatment infrastructure is prohibitively expensive or unfeasible, hence 'in-reservoir' treatment options are being explored. In the current study, a treatment system was able to photocatalytically inhibit the growth of Microcystis aeruginosa and remove released microcystins by photocatalysis using titanium dioxide coated, porous foamed glass beads and UV-LEDs (365 nm). A 35% reduction of M. aeruginosa PCC7813 cell density compared to control samples was achieved in seven days. As a function of cell removal, intracellular microcystins (microcystin-LR, -LY, -LW, and -LF) were removed by 49% from 0.69 to 0.35 µg mL-1 in seven days. Microcystins that leaked into the surrounding water from compromised cells were completely removed by photocatalysis. The findings of the current study demonstrate the feasibility of an in-reservoir treatment unit applying low cost UV-LEDs and porous foamed beads made from recycled glass coated with titanium dioxide as a means to control cyanobacteria and their toxins before they can reach the water treatment plant.

Modeling phosphorus exchange between bottom sediment and water in tropical semiarid reservoirs.

This study investigated phosphorus (P) dynamics in the sediment-water interface of three distinct reservoirs located in a tropical semiarid region. Sequential chemical fractioning of the P content in the sediment and controlled experiments of the sediment-water interface were performed to understand and model the effect of the different P fractions on the exchange dynamics under anoxic and oxic scenarios. The results revealed that the older the reservoir, the higher the amount of iron and aluminum-bound P in the sediment, and that this fraction was responsible for a 10-fold increase in P concentration in the water during anoxic conditions. After aeration, P in water decreased but did not return to its initial concentration. The most recently constructed reservoir showed the lowest P concentration in the sediment and dominance of the unavailable P fraction, resulting in no potential impact on water quality. Phosphorus release and precipitation rates were well described by zero- and first-order models, respectively. Reservoirs with high P availability in the sediment, not only released more phosphorus but also presented a lower precipitation rate, resulting in higher potential damage to water quality and making some in-lake treatment techniques potentially ineffective.

Environmental factors associated with toxic cyanobacterial blooms across 20 drinking water reservoirs in a semi-arid region of Brazil.

Cyanobacteria are known to produce a wide variety of bioactive, toxic secondary metabolites generally described as hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins, or dermatoxins. In Brazil, the regular monitoring of cyanobacterial toxins has intensified after the death of 65 patients in a hemodialysis clinic in Caruaru in the state of Pernambuco due to microcystin exposure. The primary objective of this study was to use multivariate statistics that incorporated environmental parameters (both biotic and abiotic) to forecast blooms of cyanobacteria and their toxic secondary metabolites in 20 drinking water reservoirs managed by the Water Treatment Company of Ceará (CAGECE) in the semi-arid region of Ceará, Brazil. Across four years (January 2013 to January 2017), 114 different phytoplankton taxa were identified, including 24 cyanobacterial taxa. In general, Ceará reservoirs were dominated by cyanobacteria due to eutrophication but also because of the dry and warm climate found throughout the region. Interestingly, specific cyanobacterial taxa were influenced by different biotic and abiotic factors. For example, nitrogen-to-phosphorus (N:P) and evaporation were positively related to saxitoxin-producing taxa, especially Raphidiopsis raciborskii, while temperature, electrical conductivity, total phosphorus, and transparency (measured as Secchi depth) were positively associated with microcystin-producing taxa, such as Microcystis aeruginosa. Climate forecasts predict higher evaporation and temperatures in the semi-arid Ceará region, which will likely magnify droughts and water scarcity as well as promote toxic cyanobacterial blooms in reservoirs in the future. Therefore, understanding the factors associated with algal blooms dominated by specific taxa is paramount for water resource management.

The effect of water treatment unit processes on cyanobacterial trichome integrity.

Many toxic and/or noxious cyanobacteria appear in nature with a filamentous, stacked cell arrangement called trichomes. Although water treatment can be optimized to keep cyanobacterial cells intact and avoid the release of toxic and/or noxious compounds, many physical and chemical stresses encountered during the treatment process may result in trichome truncation, decreasing treatment efficiency by allowing single cells or short trichomes to reach the product water. This makes it possible for harmful/noxious compounds as well as organic matter to enter the distribution system. Investigations in a pilot and three full-scale water treatment plants were carried out in order to elucidate the degree of trichome truncation across different unit processes. It was found that genera (Pseudanabaena, Planktolyngbya) with short trichomes (<10-12 cells per trichome), are hardly affected by the unit processes (loss of one to four cells respectively), while genera (Planktothrix, Geitlerinema, Dolichospermum) with longer trichomes (30+ cells per trichome) suffer from high degrees of truncation (up to 63, 30, and 56 cells per trichome respectively). The presence of a rigid sheath and/or mucilaginous layer appears to offer some protection from truncation. It was observed that certain unit processes alter the sensitivity or resilience of trichomes to disruption by physical stress. Some genera (Planktothrix, Geitlerinema) were sensitive to pre-oxidation making them more susceptible to shear stress, while Dolichospermum sp. appears more robust after pre-oxidation. While the potential of toxicogenic genera breaking through into the product water is a real danger, in the current study no toxicogenic cyanobacteria were observed. This work stresses the need for plant operators to study the incoming cyanobacterial composition in the raw water in order to adjust treatment parameters and thus limit the potential of toxic/noxious compound breakthrough.

Oxidação de cianobactérias e seus metabólitos em sistemas de tratamento de água: o estado da arte / Oxidation of cyanobacteria and their metabolites in water treatment facilities: the state of art

RESUMO O problema causado pelas florações de cianobactérias em mananciais para abastecimento humano vem se tornando cada dia mais preocupante não só em regiões tropicais mas em todo o mundo. Os gestores dos sistemas de tratamento de água, muitas vezes, têm que recorrer ao uso da pré-oxidação como forma de auxiliar no tratamento apesar do incremento do potencial de liberação de metabólitos e da formação de subprodutos tóxicos. Por isso, a pré-oxidação tem sido vista como vilã, tornando-se um paradigma para os profissionais de tratamento de água. Este trabalho apresenta o estado da arte do conhecimento e evidências de que a pré e a pós-oxidação podem ser usadas com sucesso como primeira e última barreira à ameaça imposta pelas cianobactérias, desde que as características da água bruta sejam conhecidas. A partir daí, o oxidante, a dosagem e o tempo de contato podem ser selecionados e definidos com mais segurança, auxiliando na produção de água potável.

ABSTRACT The problem caused by cyanobacteria blooms in water sources for human consumption is becoming of more concern each day not only in tropical countries but worldwide. Water treatment systems often resort to the use of pre-oxidation as a form of auxiliary treatment although increasing the potential for release of metabolites and formation of toxic byproducts. Therefore, the pre-oxidation has often been seen as becoming a paradigm for the water treatment professionals. This paper presents the state of art and provides evidences that the pre and post-oxidation can be used successfully as first and last barrier to the problems caused by cyanobacteria provided that the raw water characteristics are known. From there, the oxidant, dosage and contact time can be selected and defined with greater confidence in order to produce drinking water.