Dynamic regulation of partner abundance mediates response of reef coral symbioses to environmental change.

Regulating partner abunclance may allow symmotic organisms to mediate interaction outcomes, facilitating adaptive responses to environmental change. To explore the capacity for-adaptive regulation in an ecologically important endosymbiosis, we studied the population dynamics of symbiotic algae in reef-building corals under different abiotic contexts. We found high natural variability in symbiont abundance in corals across reefs, but this variability converged to different symbiont-specific abundances when colonies were maintained under constant conditions. When conditions changed seasonally, symbiont abundance readjusted to new equilibria. We explain these patterns using an a priori model of symbiotic costs and benefits to the coral host, which shows that the observed changes in symbiont abundance are consistent with the maximization of interaction benefit under different environmental conditions. These results indicate that, while regulating symbiont abundance helps hosts sustain maximum benefit in a dynamic environment, spatiotemporal variation in abiotic factors creates a broad range of symbiont abundances (and interaction outcomes) among corals that may account for observed natural variability in performance (e.g., growth rate) and stress tolerance (e.g., bleaching susceptibility). This cost or benefit framework provides a new perspective on the dynamic regulation of reef coral symbioses and illustrates that the dependence of interaction outcomes on biotic and abiotic contexts may be important in understanding how diverse mutualisms respond to environmental change.

The transcriptome of the early life history stages of the California Sea Hare Aplysia californica.

Aplysia californica is a marine opisthobranch mollusc used as a model organism in neurobiology for cellular analyses of learning and behavior because it possesses a comparatively small number of neurons of large size. The mollusca comprise the second largest animal phylum, yet detailed genetic and genomic information is only recently beginning to accrue. Thus developmental and comparative evolutionary biology as well as biomedical research would benefit from additional information on DNA sequences of Aplysia. Therefore, we have constructed a series of unidirectional cDNA libraries from different life stages of Aplysia. These include whole organisms from the egg, veliger, metamorphic, and juvenile stages as well as adult neural tissue for reference. Individual clones were randomly picked, and high-throughput, single pass sequence analysis was performed to generate 7971 sequences. Of these, there were 5507 quality-filtered ESTs that clustered into 1988 unigenes, which are annotated and deposited into GenBank. A significant number (497) of ESTs did not match existing Aplysia ESTs and are thus potentially novel sequences for Aplysia. GO and KEGG analyses of these novel sequences indicated that a large number were involved in protein binding and translation, consistent with the predominant biosynthetic role in development and the presence of stage-specific protein isoforms.

Differential effects of copper on three species of scleractinian corals and their algal symbionts (Symbiodinium spp.).

Land-based sources of pollution have been identified as significant stressors linked to the widespread declines of coral cover in coastal reef ecosystems over the last 30 years. Metal contaminants, although noted as a concern, have not been closely monitored in these sensitive ecosystems, nor have their potential impacts on coral-algal symbioses been characterized. In this study, three species of laboratory-reared scleractinian corals, Acropora cervicornis, Pocillopora damicornis, and Montastraea faveolata each containing different algal symbionts (Symbiodinium A3, C1 and D1a, respectively) were exposed to copper (ranging from 2 to 20microg/L) for 5 weeks. At the end of the exposure period, copper had accumulated in the endosymbiotic dinoflagellate ("zooxanthellae") and animal tissue of A. cervicornis and the animal tissue of M. faveolata; however, no copper accumulation was detected in the zooxanthellae or animal tissue of P. damicornis. The three coral species exhibited significantly different sensitivities to copper, with effects occurring in A. cervicornis and P. damicornis at copper concentrations as low as 4microg/L. Copper exposure affected zooxanthellae photosynthesis in A. cervicornis and P. damicornis, and carbonic anhydrase was significantly decreased in A. cervicornis and M. faveolata. Likewise, significant decreases in skeletal growth were observed in A. cervicornis and P. damicornis after copper exposure. Based on preliminary results, no changes in Symbiodinium communities were apparent in response to increasing copper concentration. These results indicate that the relationships between physiological/toxicological endpoints and copper accumulation between coral species differ, suggesting different mechanisms of toxicity and/or susceptibility. This may be driven, in part, by differences in the algal symbiont communities of the coral species in question.

The effects of metals on embryo-larval and adult life stages of the sea urchin, Diadema antillarum.

Since the massive population decline of the long-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, in the early 1980s, the dynamics of coral reef ecosystems in the Caribbean have changed tremendously. The absence of D. antillarum, once a keystone herbivore, has led to macroalgal dominance in many of these reef communities. D. antillarum is not only important ecologically, but may also be a sensitive bioindicator species for toxicant exposure. Echinoderm larval development tests were conducted with D. antillarum exposed to elevated levels of aqueous copper (Cu), silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), or selenium (Se). All metals significantly affected larval development, based on normal development to the pluteus stage. The EC50s based on dissolved metal concentrations were 11 microg/L Cu, 6 microg/L Ag, 15 microg/L Ni, and 26 microg/L Se. Adult sea urchins were exposed to aqueous copper under flow through conditions for 96 h. The 96-h LC50 for this exposure was 25 microg/L dissolved Cu. Additionally, behavioral and physiological disturbance was observed. The physiological responses included both acid-base balance disturbance, as evidenced by reduced coelomic fluid pH and apparent ionoregulatory effects. In addition, behavioral effects included spatial orientation within the exposure tank, spine closure, and loss of spines. The high sensitivity of both adult and larval D. antillarum to these metals supports the use of this organism as an important biological indicator for metal exposure in marine environments.

High levels of polysaccharides in Aplysia hepatopancreas and penis: differential effects of nutrition and development.

1. Carbohydrate levels in tissues of Aplysia californica were measured. In animals maintained in the laboratory without feeding for 1-2 weeks, the penis contained the highest concentration of glycogen. 2. Blood glucose ranged between 2.5 and 4.8 mg/dl and averaged 3.2 +/- 0.2 mg/dl. 3. Fed animals had significantly greater tissue glycogen levels than starved animals. The penis exhibited the smallest per cent increase in glycogen concentration in response to feeding. 4. In contrast, the hepatopancreas exhibited a large increase, attaining glycogen concentrations near that of the penis. 5. Most of the increase in total tissue glycogen in fed animals occurred in the hepatopancreas. 6. Starved and fed animals did not differ significantly in blood glucose concentration, thus indicating that blood glucose is regulated and excess glucose is stored. 7. The hepatopancreas is the major mobile glucose store. 8. The high concentrations of glycogen found in the penis were not affected by mating activity. 9. However, penis glycogen concentration increased greatly with reproductive maturation of Aplysia; in contrast, hepatopancreas glycogen concentration was relatively unaffected by development. 10. A structural role by carbohydrates in the penis is suggested.