Short communication: Differences in distribution of serotonin receptor subtypes in the mammary gland of sheep, goats, and cows during lactation and involution.

Serotonin receptors (5-HTR) are present in the mammary tissue of mouse, humans, cows, and rats. In these species, serotonin is important for the mammary gland function and lactation performance. The mammary gland expression of 5-HTR in small dairy ruminants has yet to be described. In the present study, primer sequences were developed to amplify 5-HTR (1A, 1D, 1E,1B, 1F, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3a, 4, 5a, 6, and 7) using real-time quantitative PCR for the detection of mRNA expression in mammary tissue of dairy sheep, goats, and cows. The distribution of commonly expressed 5-HTR between the 3 species (1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7) was analyzed in the mammary tissue of late-lactation and dried-off sheep, goats, and cows using immunohistochemical staining. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis showed that the 3 studied species expressed receptors 5-HTR1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7. Goats and sheep expressed 5-HTR1D and 5a; 5-HTR1A and 1F were expressed only in sheep. The mammary epithelial cells were positively stained for all the studied receptors by immunohistochemistry (5-HTR1B, 1E, 2A, 2B, 4, and 7). The endothelial cells of blood vessels were positively stained for 5-HTR1B, 2A, 2B, and 7 in all the species. Additionally, 5-HTR1E was present in cow endothelium. The myoepithelial cells stained positively for 5-HTR1E in all the species, and 5-HTR4 myoepithelial staining was present only in cows and sheep. Between the lactating and dried-off mammary glands, the location of 5-HTR in the epithelial cells changed from a cytoplasmic reaction in lactating udders to a reaction in the apical region in dry udders. These results showed that the distribution of 5-HTR subtypes in the mammary gland of dairy ruminants vary among species, tissue type, and stage of gland development. These findings warrant future studies aimed at understanding whether the differences in 5-HTR subtype expression and location accounts for the differences in milk secretion and lactocyte activity among cows, goats, and sheep.

Expression patterns and genetic variation of the ovine skeletal muscle transcriptome of sheep from five Spanish meat breeds.

The goal of the current study is to analyse the gene expression profile of the ovine skeletal muscle as well as to characterize the genetic variation of transcripts expressed in such tissue. This aim has been achieved by sequencing the longissimus dorsi transcriptomes of 50 sheep distributed in five pools representing the Canaria de Pelo, Roja Mallorquina, Gallega, Xisqueta and Ripollesa Spanish autochthonous breeds. Approximately, 363 million reads per pool have been produced and 71.9-82.9% have been successfully mapped to the ovine genome in a paired-end mode (2 × 75 bp). The 200 most expressed muscle transcripts (≈1% of the total transcript count) account for 51% (Canaria de Pelo) to 67% (Gallega) of the total ovine skeletal muscle mRNA expression. These highly expressed genes play key roles in pathways related with striated muscle contraction, gluconeogenesis, glycolysis, citric acid cycle and respiratory electron transport. RNA-Sequencing of muscle transcripts has also revealed that ~72% of the SNPs detected with this approach are shared by at least two pools, and 10% of them segregate in the five pools under analysis. Most of the substitutions detected by RNA-Seq are synonymous or missense and only a minority are predicted to have consequences on protein function.

Invited review: Current production trends, farm structures, and economics of the dairy sheep and goat sectors.

Dairy small ruminants account for approximately 21% of all sheep and goats in the world, produce around 3.5% of the world's milk, and are mainly located in subtropical-temperate areas of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Dairy sheep are concentrated around the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, where their dairy products are typical ingredients of the human diet. Dairy goats are concentrated in low-income, food-deficit countries of the Indian subcontinent, where their products are a key food source, but are also present in high-income, technologically developed countries. This review evaluates the status of the dairy sheep and goat sectors in the world, with special focus on the commercially and technically developed industries in France, Greece, Italy, and Spain (FGIS). Dairy small ruminants account for a minor part of the total agricultural output in France, Italy, and Spain (0.9 to 1.8%) and a larger part in Greece (8.8%). In FGIS, the dairy sheep industry is based on local breeds and crossbreeds raised under semi-intensive and intensive systems and is concentrated in a few regions in these countries. Average flock size varies from small to medium (140 to 333 ewes/farm), and milk yield from low to medium (85 to 216 L/ewe), showing substantial room for improvement. Most sheep milk is sold to industries and processed into traditional cheese types, many of which are Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) cheeses for gourmet and export markets (e.g., Pecorino, Manchego, and Roquefort). By comparing break-even milk price among FGIS countries, we observed the following: (1) most Greek and French dairy sheep farms were unprofitable, with the exception of the intensive Chios farms of Greece; (2) milk price was aligned with cost of production in Italy; and (3) profitable farms coexisted with unprofitable farms in Spain. In FGIS, dairy goat production is based on local breeds raised under more extensive systems than sheep. Compared with sheep, average dairy goat herds are smaller (36 to 190 does/farm) but milk yield is greater (153 to 589 L/doe), showing room for improvement. Goat milk is mainly processed on-farm into dairy products for national markets, but some PDO goat milk cheeses (e.g., Murcia al Vino) are exported. Processed goat milk is sold for local human consumption or dehydrated for export. Mixed sheep-goat (e.g., Feta) and cow-sheep-goat milk cheeses are common in many countries. Strategies to improve the dairy sheep and goat sectors in these 4 countries are proposed and discussed.

Goat domestication and breeding: a jigsaw of historical, biological and molecular data with missing pieces.

Domestic goats (Capra hircus) are spread across the five continents with a census of 1 billion individuals. The worldwide population of goats descends from a limited number of bezoars (Capra aegagrus) domesticated 10 000 YBP (years before the present) in the Fertile Crescent. The extraordinary adaptability and hardiness of goats favoured their rapid spread over the Old World, reaching the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Africa 7000 YBP and 2000 YBP respectively. Molecular studies have revealed one major mitochondrial haplogroup A and five less frequent haplogroups B, C, D, F and G. Moreover, the analysis of autosomal and Y-chromosome markers has evidenced an appreciable geographic differentiation. The implementation of new molecular technologies, such as whole-genome sequencing and genome-wide genotyping, allows for the exploration of caprine diversity at an unprecedented scale, thus providing new insights into the evolutionary history of goats. In spite of a number of pitfalls, the characterization of the functional elements of the goat genome is expected to play a key role in understanding the genetic determination of economically relevant traits. Genomic selection and genome editing also hold great potential, particularly for improving traits that cannot be modified easily by traditional selection.

Population structure of eleven Spanish ovine breeds and detection of selective sweeps with BayeScan and hapFLK.

The goals of the current work were to analyse the population structure of 11 Spanish ovine breeds and to detect genomic regions that may have been targeted by selection. A total of 141 individuals were genotyped with the Infinium 50 K Ovine SNP BeadChip (Illumina). We combined this dataset with Spanish ovine data previously reported by the International Sheep Genomics Consortium (N = 229). Multidimensional scaling and Admixture analyses revealed that Canaria de Pelo and, to a lesser extent, Roja Mallorquina, Latxa and Churra are clearly differentiated populations, while the remaining seven breeds (Ojalada, Castellana, Gallega, Xisqueta, Ripollesa, Rasa Aragonesa and Segureña) share a similar genetic background. Performance of a genome scan with BayeScan and hapFLK allowed us identifying three genomic regions that are consistently detected with both methods i.e. Oar3 (150-154 Mb), Oar6 (4-49 Mb) and Oar13 (68-74 Mb). Neighbor-joining trees based on polymorphisms mapping to these three selective sweeps did not show a clustering of breeds according to their predominant productive specialization (except the local tree based on Oar13 SNPs). Such cryptic signatures of selection have been also found in the bovine genome, posing a considerable challenge to understand the biological consequences of artificial selection.

A mitochondrial analysis reveals distinct founder effect signatures in Canarian and Balearic goats.

In the course of human migrations, domestic animals often have been translocated to islands with the aim of assuring food availability. These founder events are expected to leave a genetic footprint that may be recognised nowadays. Herewith, we have examined the mitochondrial diversity of goat populations living in the Canarian and Balearic archipelagos. Median-joining network analysis produced very distinct network topologies for these two populations. Indeed, a majority of Canarian goats shared a single ancestral haplotype that segregated in all sampled islands, suggesting a single founder effect followed by a stepping-stone pattern of diffusion. This haplotype also was present in samples collected from archaeological assemblies at Gran Canaria and Lanzarote, making evident its widespread distribution in ancient times. In stark contrast, goats from Majorca and Ibiza did not share any mitochondrial haplotypes, indicating the occurrence of two independent founder events. Furthermore, in Majorcan goats, we detected the segregation of the mitochondrial G haplogroup that has only been identified in goats from Egypt, Iran and Turkey. This finding suggests the translocation of Asian and/or African goats to Majorca, possibly as a consequence of the Phoenician and Carthaginian colonisations of this island.

The effect of colostrum source (goat vs. sheep) and timing of the first colostrum feeding (2h vs. 14h after birth) on body weight and immune status of artificially reared newborn lambs.

Several factors can affect lamb body weight (BW) and immune status during the first days of life, including colostrum source and timing of the first colostrum feeding. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of colostrum source (goat or sheep) and timing of the first colostrum feeding (2 or 14h after birth) on lamb BW and immune status. In this study, 40 lambs were removed from their dams at birth and randomly assigned into 4 groups of 10 lambs each. Lambs were subsequently fed at 2 or 14h after birth with goat or sheep colostrum. Blood samples and BW recording were performed before feeding. Blood plasma was used to measure the immunoglobulin concentration (IgG and IgM), chitotriosidase activity, and complement system activity (total and alternative pathways). In general, no differences in any of the measured variables were observed among the 4 groups, indicating that neither colostrum source nor timing of the first colostrum feeding had an effect on these variables. These findings may improve management on lamb farms that raise animals under artificial conditions, because our results indicate that it is not necessary to feed colostrum to lambs immediately after birth and that goat colostrum may be used to feed newborn lambs.

Technical note: Advantages and limitations of authenticating Palmera goat dairy products by pyrosequencing the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene.

Inferring the breed of origin of dairy products can be achieved through molecular analysis of genetic markers with a population-specific pattern of segregation. The goal of the current work was to generate such markers in goats by resequencing several pigmentation genes [melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), v-kit Hardy-Zuckerman 4 feline sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KIT), tyrosinase (TYR), and tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TYRP2)]. This experiment revealed 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), including 5 missense mutations and 1 nonsense mutation. These markers were genotyped in 560 goats from 18 breeds originally from Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, and North Africa. Although the majority of SNP segregated at moderate frequencies in all populations (including 2 additional markers that were used as a source of information), we identified a c.764G>A SNP in MC1R that displayed highly divergent allelic frequencies in the Palmera breed compared with the Majorera and Tinerfeña breeds from the Canary Islands. Thus, we optimized a pyrosequencing-based technique that allowed us to estimate, very accurately, the allele frequencies of this marker in complex DNA mixtures from different individuals. Once validated, we applied this method to generating breed-specific DNA profiles that made it possible to detect fraudulent cheeses in which Palmero cheese was manufactured with milk from Majorera goats. One limitation of this approach, however, is that it cannot be used to detect illegal manufacturing where Palmero dairy products are produced by mixing milk from Palmera and Majorera goats, because the c.764G>A SNP segregates in both breeds.

Abuso sexual infantil: desafío multidisciplinar. Un abordaje integral del problema para mejorar su detección y la atención a la víctima / Child sexual abuse, a multidisciplinary challenge: an integral approach to the problem to improve its detection and victim care

El abuso sexual infantil (ASI) es el delito de malos tratos a menores que más sumergida y silenciosamente ocurre ante la sociedad, por lo que en un alto porcentaje queda impune. Las secuelas que origina en la psicología de la víctima son profundas y prolongadas, y a menudo resultan devastadoras para su biografía posterior, hecho que sólo puede ser evitado si el abuso es detectado y se brinda al menor una adecuada rehabilitación psicoemocional. La mejora en su detección y abordaje profesional es una responsabilidad que recae, entre otros servidores públicos, sobre el pediatra. Pero el análisis objetivo de este problema pone de manifiesto que las formas más comunes de presentación clínica del ASI ante el pediatra son las crípticas, sobre todo en forma de trastornos comportamentales o de somatizaciones neuróticas de la víctima, a priori inespecíficas, por efecto del desbordamiento emocional debido al padecimiento silencioso y a la vivencia solitaria de desamparo, en la mayoría de los casos, sin mediar revelación alguna por parte de aquélla ni hallar pruebas físicas en su exploración. Ante este hecho, y partiendo sólo de una mera sospecha o posibilidad intuida, el pediatra se enfrenta a un auténtico desafío en su deber de detección, asistencia, notificación y custodia a la víctima. El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo ayudar al pediatra a orientar correctamente su actuación al afrontar este desafío. Se expone para ello el resultado de un análisis integral del problema, en el que han sido abordados no sólo aspectos de la presentación clínica y la actuación médica a recomendar, sino también de la fenomenología social y familiar del ASI y del devenir judicial y biográfico de los casos, con el fin de orientar mejor la actuación pediátrica. Ésta, que debe tener como objetivo prioritario la protección y rehabilitación emocional del menor, pero intentando minimizar al máximo las posibles repercusiones psicosociales en la víctima y su familia, no halla su única solución en el aumento de formación y concienciación pediátricas, sino que exige la habilitación de recursos especializados y multidisciplinares, ágiles, discretos y capaces de asumir un seguimiento coordinado a largo plazo, lamentablemente aún no disponibles en muchas comunidades de nuestro país. Este tipo de seguimiento multidisciplinar y coordinado, necesario también para otras formas de sospecha de maltrato y patologías de índole psicosocial, es justificación suficiente para reivindicar la creación de Unidades de Pediatría Psicosocial (AU)

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is the crime of child abuse that occurs so stealthily and is so submerged in society that it often goes unpunished. The psychological sequels for the victim are both deep and prolonged and can lead to devastating effects on the child's future which can only be prevented if the abuse is detected and appropriate psychoemotional rehabilitation rovided. The improvement of its detection and victim treatment is a professional sponsibility that lies on the pediatrician, along with other public servants. However, an objective analysis of this issue makes it evident that most common forms of clinical presentation of CSA to the paediatrician are cryptic and usually present themselves as behavioral disorders or neurotic somatization of the victim, a priori unspecified, as consequence of the emotional overflow caused by suffering in silence and solitary experience of helplessness, in the majority of cases, without any disclosure on the victim's part or the finding of any physical evidence after our exploration. Given this fact, the pediatrician is faced with the challenging task of detecting, assisting, reporting and taking care of the victim on the basis of mere suspicion or intuition. The present work aims to help the pediatrician to correctly guide their actions to meet this challenge. A comprehensive analysis of the problem is carried out, addressing not only aspects of the clinical and medical action to recommend, but also the social and family phenomenology of CSA and the legal and biographical becoming of cases, in order to target the pediatric performance. This, it must have as a priority the child's emotional protection and rehabilitation, but trying to minimize the maximum the possible sychosocial impact on the victim and his family. To achieve this it's not the only solution in increasing pediatric training and awareness, but requires the empowerment of specialized resources for a multidisciplinary assessment which has to be prompt, discreet and capable of providing long-term follow up, not yet available in many communities in our country. The need for this multidisciplinary and coordinated monitoring, which is also required in other types of abuse and psycho-social pathologies, is reason enough to vindicate the creation of Pediatric Psycho-Social Units (AU)

Short communication: Effects of milking frequency on udder morphology, milk partitioning, and milk quality in 3 dairy goat breeds.

Thirty-six dairy goats of 3 breeds (Majorera, Tinerfeña, and Palmera) in mid lactation (124 ± 8 d in milk) were subjected unilaterally to once (× 1) or twice daily milking (× 2) for 5 wk to evaluate udder morphology, milk partitioning, and somatic cell count. Majorera and Palmera goats presented the highest and lowest udder depth values, respectively, whereas the differences between initial and final cistern-floor and teat-floor distances were not affected by milking frequency or breed factors. Cisternal and alveolar milk percentages were similar between × 1 and × 2 in the studied breeds. Milking frequency did not affect milk composition in the cisternal fraction, suggesting a greater transfer of milk from the alveoli to the cistern during early udder filling. However, milking frequency caused diverse changes in the milk composition in the alveolar fraction, especially in fat, lactose, and total solids contents. No udder halves presented clinical mastitis during the experimental period, suggesting that × 1 does not impair udder health and indicating that the studied breeds are adapted to this milking frequency.

Mitochondrial analysis sheds light on the origin of hair sheep.

A total of 180 mtDNA sequences from hair Caribbean (93), West African (73) and Canarian-wooled (14) sheep were analysed to shed light on the origin of hair sheep. A comparison of 360 Iberian sheep sequences retrieved from GenBank was performed to assess a possible European origin of the Caribbean hair sheep. These 180 sequences gave 48 different haplotypes (16 in Caribbean sheep). All Caribbean and Canarian-wooled sequences and 91.8% of the West African samples belonged to haplogroup B. The sheep analysed showed wide haplotypic identity. Caribbean sheep shared roughly two-thirds of their samples with Canarian-wooled and West African samples, respectively. Principal component analysis showed that the Caribbean and the Canarian-wooled sheep clustered together. Additional analyses showed that hair and Iberian sheep had wide genetic identity. It was not possible to ascertain a single Canarian, African or European origin of the Caribbean hair sheep using mtDNA markers only. European, African and Caribbean hair sheep maternal genetic backgrounds likely result from related domestication events.

Docosahexaenoic acid in the goat kid diet: effects on immune system and meat quality.

The effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n3; DHA) supplementation on meat quality and immunity in goat (Capra hircus) kids was examined. Goat kids (n = 30) were fed 1 of 3 experimental diets: goat milk (GM), cow (Bos taurus) milk (CM), and CM supplemented with DHA (CM-DHA). Animals were fed ad libitum twice daily and weighed twice each week. Blood samples were collected by jugular venipuncture daily during the first 10 d of life and were subsequently collected every 5 d until slaughter at a BW of 8 kg. Carcass size (linear measurements) and weight, as well as meat pH, color, tenderness, and chemical composition were determined. Fatty acid profiles of intramuscular, peri-renal, pelvic, subcutaneous, and intermuscular fats were analyzed. Blood IgG and IgM concentrations, complement system activity (classical and alternative pathways), and chitotriosidase activity were recorded. Results indicated that the diet containing DHA did not affect (P > 0.05) carcass linear measurements, meat quality characteristics, or proximate composition of the meat. However, C22:6n3 fatty acid levels, mainly in intramuscular fat, were enriched (P < 0.05) in CM-DHA animals, and the n-6 to n-3 PUFA ratio was improved (P < 0.05). No differences (P > 0.05) in immune function were observed among groups. In conclusion, powdered whole CM is an effective option for feeding goat kids, and the inclusion of DHA to CM increases the quantity of this fatty acid in the meat.

Polymorphism of the goat agouti signaling protein gene and its relationship with coat color in Italian and Spanish breeds.

Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) is one of the key players in the modulation of hair pigmentation in mammals. Binding to the melanocortin 1 receptor, ASIP induces the synthesis of phaeomelanin, associated with reddish brown, red, tan, and yellow coats. We have sequenced 2.8 kb of the goat ASIP gene in 48 individuals and identified two missense (Cys126Gly and Val128Gly) and two intronic polymorphisms. In silico analysis revealed that the Cys126Gly substitution may cause a structural change by disrupting a highly conserved disulfide bond. We studied its segregation in 12 Spanish and Italian goat breeds (N = 360) with different pigmentation patterns and found striking differences in the frequency of the putative loss-of-function Gly(126) allele (Italian 0.43, Spanish Peninsular 0.08), but we did not observe a clear association with coat color. This suggests that the frequency of this putative loss-of-function allele has evolved under the influence of demographic rather than selection factors in goats from these two geographical areas.

Effects of induced parturition in goats on immunoglobulin G and chitotriosidase activity in colostrum and plasma and on plasma concentrations of prolactin.

The effect of induction of parturition with a PGF(2)α analog on plasma concentration of prolactin (PRL) and its effects on colostrum concentration of IgG and chitotriosidase (ChT) activity were studied in 16 pregnant Majorera goats. Treated goats, those in which parturition was induced, had greater concentrations of PRL than control goats 24 h before parturition (P < 0.05) and 48 h after parturition (P < 0.05). Control goats had greater concentrations of PRL than treated goats 96 h after parturition (P < 0.05). Plasma concentration of IgG did not differ between groups during the experimental period, but colostrum concentrations of IgG were greater in control goats than in treated goats at parturition (P < 0.05). Plasma ChT activity decreased during the period 72 h before parturition to 24 h after parturition in control and treated goats. Time evolution after partum affected the colostrum ChT activity, being greater at parturition than after parturition in both groups (P < 0.05). In summary, concentration of IgG in colostrum is slightly diminished if parturition is induced. Induction of parturition causes an early increase in PRL, which is most likely responsible for preterm suppression of IgG transport into mammary secretions.

Sodium dodecyl sulfate reduces bacterial contamination in goat colostrum without negative effects on immune passive transfer in goat kids.

To investigate the use of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a biocide on goat colostrum, 2 experiments were performed. In the first, 20 goat colostrum samples were divided into 3 aliquots. A different treatment was performed on each aliquot: pasteurization (56°C, 30 min) or addition of SDS to a final concentration of either 0.1 or 1% (36°C, 10 min). Immunoglobulin G and colony-forming units were evaluated before and after treatment. Both pasteurization and treatment with 1% SDS significantly reduced the colony-forming units in colostrum. Treatment with 0.1% SDS was not effective at reducing the colony-forming units in colostrum. The IgG concentration of pasteurized colostrum was significantly lower than that of untreated colostrum, whereas treatment with 1% SDS did not affect the colostrum IgG concentration. In the second experiment, the effects of SDS colostrum treatment on immune passive transfer were evaluated. Forty goat kids were fed either refrigerated colostrum or colostrum treated with 1% SDS twice daily for 2 d. Blood samples were obtained at birth and every day for 5 d. IgG, IgM, and IgA were measured in blood serum to monitor the passive immune transfer process. Creatinine, glucose, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, bilirubin, and aspartate transaminase were also monitored to evaluate the health of kids. No differences in serum IgG, IgM, IgA, creatinine, glucose, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen, bilirubin, or aspartate transaminase levels were observed between groups. Our findings indicate that SDS is an efficient colostrum biocide that, unlike pasteurization, does not affect immune passive transfer or goat kid health.

Suitability of electronic mini-boluses for the early identification of goat kids and effects on growth performance and development of the reticulorumen.

A total of 60 twin-goat kids (30 male and 30 female) of the Canary Island Majorera dairy breed were used in 2 experiments to evaluate 2 types of electronic identification mini-boluses and their effects on rearing performances and reticulorumen development. Electronic identification mini-boluses were cylindrical and made of ceramic materials (B1, 9.0 g and 38.5 × 9.5 mm; B2, 16.3 g and 42.2 × 12.2 mm), contained a 32-mm half-duplex passive transponder, and were administered to kids at different BW. In Exp. 1, treatments were 1) control, without bolus (n = 15) and 2) identified with B1 at 4.8 kg of BW (n = 15). In Exp. 2, treatments were 1) control, without bolus (n = 15) and 2) identified with B2 at 5.6 kg of BW (n = 15). Kids were penned separately, according to mini-bolus treatments, fed a milk replacer daily, and slaughtered at 10 kg of BW. Milk replacer intake was recorded individually twice weekly and boluses read weekly until slaughter. The full and empty stomach complex was measured immediately after slaughter, and mini-bolus location was recorded. Samples of the reticulum and rumen wall were taken to measure the number and length of the papillae and crest. Despite the light BW of kids at time of mini-bolus treatment, no negative effects (P > 0.05) of B1 and B2 mini-boluses were observed on milk intake, growth rate, or G:F in either experiment. No kid mortality or mini-bolus losses were observed during either experiment. All mini-boluses were retained until slaughter, and all were found in the rumen upon dissection, except one B2, which was found in the reticulum. Mini-bolus treatment did not affect (P > 0.05) the weight of full and empty reticulorumen or the number of papillae and crest size of the reticulum epithelium. Moreover, the B1-treated kids showed a greater number of papillae in the rumen wall than the control kids (22.4 +/- 1.0 vs. 18.9 +/- 0.9 papillae/cm, respectively; P < 0.05) in Exp. 1. In conclusion, the use of mini-boluses was suitable for the electronic identification of growing kids from early ages (wk 2 to 5 of age and 5 to 6 kg of BW) and did not produce negative effects on their growth performances or on reticulorumen development. These results support the use of properly designed boluses as a unique identification device for the entire lifespan of goats.

Farm and factory production of goat cheese whey results in distinct chemical composition.

To analyze differences in fat and protein content in cheese whey (CW) manufactured in cheese-making factories and farms, goat CW samples were obtained from 60 cheese-making farms and 20 cheese factories. Gross composition of samples was analyzed by using an MIRIS device (MIRIS Inc., Uppsala, Sweden), whey protein composition was subjected to electrophoretic analysis, and fatty acid composition was analyzed via gas chromatography. Goat CW from farms contained higher dry matter content (70.6 vs. 50.8 g/L, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and a higher fat percentage (10.5 vs. 1.2% over dry matter, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. Analysis of individual proteins showed that CW from farms contained higher concentrations of lactoferrin (0.4 vs. 0.2 mg/mL of CW, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and caprine serum albumin (0.6 vs. 0.4 mg/mL of whey, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. No differences were observed in the fatty acid profile. The main fatty acids present in goat CW were C16:0, C18:1, C14:0, and C18:0. Thus, the origin of CW affects gross composition and the protein profile, but not the fatty acid profile.

Mitochondrial DNA diversity and origins of South and Central American goats.

We have analysed the genetic diversity of South and Central American (SCA) goats by partially sequencing the mitochondrial control region of 93 individuals with a wide geographical distribution. Nucleotide and haplotype diversities reached values of 0.020 +/- 0.00081 and 0.963 +/- 0.0012 respectively. We have also observed a rather weak phylogeographic structure, with almost 69% of genetic variation included in the within-breed variance component. The topology of a median-joining network analysis including 286 European, Iberian, Atlantic and SCA mitochondrial sequences was very complex, with most of the haplotypes forming part of independent small clusters. SCA sequences showed a scattered distribution throughout the network, and clustering with Spanish and Portuguese sequences occurred only occasionally, not allowing the distinguishing of a clear Iberian signature. Conversely, we found a prominent cluster including Canarian, Chilean, Argentinian and Bolivian mitochondrial haplotypes. This result was independently confirmed by constructing a Bayesian phylogenetic tree (posterior probability of 0.97). Sharing of mitochondrial haplotypes by SCA and Canarian goats suggests that goat populations from the Atlantic archipelagos, where Spanish and Portuguese ships en route to the New World used to stow food and supplies, participated in the foundation of SCA caprine breeds.

Effects of newborn characteristics and length of colostrum feeding period on passive immune transfer in goat kids.

Majorera goat kids (n = 200) were used to evaluate the effects of litter size, birth body weight, sex, and suckling duration on serum IgG concentrations. Kids were assigned to 1 of 3 experimental groups: litter size and sex were equally distributed in each group. In the first group, kids (n = 67) stayed with their dams for 24 h; in the second group, kids (n = 66) stayed with their dams for 48 h; and in the third group, kids (n = 67) stayed with their dams for 120 h. Blood samples were obtained every 24 h for 5 d, and serum IgG concentration was measured using radial immunodiffusion. In litter sizes of 1 to 2 kids, IgG blood serum concentration was significantly higher (18.30 +/- 5.40 mg/mL) than in litters of 3 kids (9.85 +/- 4.23 mg/mL). Kid sex did not affect IgG blood serum concentrations. Suckling duration did not affect kid serum IgG concentrations. In conclusion, kids with low birth body weight (<2.8 kg) or from litters of 3 may need special attention. If newborn goat kids are allowed to suckle colostrum for at least 24 h from their dams, this seems to be sufficient time to ingest enough IgG from colostrum to achieve an adequate serum IgG concentration and passive immune protection to avoid failure of passive immune transfer.

Effect of colostrum immunoglobulin concentration on immunity in Majorera goat kids.

The aim of the research was to evaluate the effects of immunoglobulin G (IgG) colostrum concentration on goat kid immune status when the total amount of IgG fed was constant. Majorera goat kids (n = 56) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups, and kids received 4 g of IgG per kg of body weight of atomized colostrum at 4 different IgG concentrations: 20 (AC-20), 40 (AC-40), 60 (AC-60), and 80 (AC-80) mg/mL. Blood samples were obtained on d 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 postpartum. Immunoglobulin G, IgA, and IgM plasma concentrations, apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG, plasma chitotriosidase activity, plasma complement activity, and plasma proteinogram were measured. Plasma IgG and IgM concentrations were highest on d 1 in AC-80 animals, and IgA plasma concentration was lower in AC-20 than in AC-80. The apparent efficiency of absorption was higher in AC-80 (24.4%) than in the other treatment groups (by an average of 13.8%). Chitotriosidase plasma activity on d 5 (1,488 nmol/mL per hour) was higher than on d 0 and 1 (average of 1,183 nmol/mL per hour). There were no effects of colostrum IgG concentration on complement activity and plasma protein distribution, but gamma-globulin and alpha-globulin were lower on d 0 than on d 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Increasing the immunoglobulin concentration in colostrum using atomized colostrum improves the immunoglobulin absorption at the same amount of immunoglobulin fed.