Self-perception of dual career barriers and athletic identity in student-athletes with disabilities according to disability type and level of professionalization.

The objective of this study was to analyze the perceived barriers to dual career success and athletic identity of student-athletes according to disability type and level of professionalization. The final sample consisted of 203 student-athletes with disabilities from five European countries. The questionnaires used were ESTPORT, EBBS and AIMS. Depending on disability type, it was found that student-athletes with hearing and physical impairment showed the highest difficulty in reconciling sports and studies (p = 0.001); that student-athletes with a hearing impairment showed the highest score in the barrier 'the cost of education is high' (p = 0.023); that student-athletes with a physical impairment had the highest scores in the barrier 'Exercise tires me' (p = 0.013); that student-athletes with cerebral palsy showed the highest scores in the barrier 'I do not have enough university/educational institution support' (p = 0.014) and 'Exercise facilities do not have convenient timetables for me' (p = 0.001). Depending on sports professionalization level, semi-professional student-athletes showed the highest values in the barrier 'the university/educational institution is far from my training center' (p = 0.040); while professional student-athletes had the highest score in the barrier 'exercise takes too much time from family responsibilities' (p = 0.034). In most of the variables related to identity as athletes, professional student-athletes showed the highest values, followed by semi-professional athletes (p = 0.043- < 0.001). In conclusion, the self-perception of barriers is quite relevant, with differences arising from disability type and level of professionalization, whereas the identity as an athlete is only different according to the level of professionalization.

Determinants of the effectiveness of fast break actions in elite and sub-elite Italian men's basketball games.

The aim of this study was to examine the determinants of successful and unsuccessful fast-break (FB) actions in elite and sub-elite basketball games. Fifteen 1st-division (elite) and fifteen 3rd-division (sub-elite) Italian men's championship games were analysed across two seasons (2012/2013 and 2013/2014). A binary logistic regression analysis was performed, and the fast-break outcome (successful vs. unsuccessful) was adopted as the dependent variable separately in both elite and sub-elite games. FB execution (initiation, advance and completion phases), typology (primary and secondary break) and the number of players involved (equal number or superiority) were used as independent variables. The results showed that the rate of success of FB actions was 63.5% and 59.7% in elite and sub-elite games, respectively. Moreover, successful FBs were more likely to be completed in the lane in relation to unsuccessful ones in both elite and sub-elite games (p<0.05). Finally, descriptive statistics showed that both elite and sub-elite teams executed FBs similarly. This study highlighted that completion zone was the only predictor of a successful fast break in basketball, while the typology and number of players involved did not predict fast break effectiveness. Moreover, elite and sub-elite teams executed fast break actions similarly. These findings might be useful for basketball coaches to optimize the training of FB actions.

Effects of Physical-Cognitive Dual Task Training on Executive Function and Gait Performance in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Physical and cognitive training seem to counteract age-related decline in physical and mental function. Recently, the possibility of integrating cognitive demands into physical training has attracted attention. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of twelve weeks of designed physical-cognitive training on executive cognitive function and gait performance in older adults. Thirty-six healthy, active individuals aged 72.30 ± 5.84 years were assigned to two types of physical training with major focus on physical single task (ST) training (n = 16) and physical-cognitive dual task (DT) training (n = 20), respectively. They were tested before and after the intervention for executive function (inhibition, working memory) through Random Number Generation and for gait (walking with/without negotiating hurdles) under both single and dual task (ST, DT) conditions. Gait performance improved in both groups, while inhibitory performance decreased after exercise training with ST focus but tended to increase after training with physical-cognitive DT focus. Changes in inhibition performance were correlated with changes in DT walking performance with group differences as a function of motor task complexity (with/without hurdling). The study supports the effectiveness of group exercise classes for older individuals to improve gait performance, with physical-cognitive DT training selectively counteracting the age-related decline in a core executive function essential for daily living.

Stress related changes during TeamGym competition.

AIM: The aim of the present study was to investigate the stress--related changes of a TeamGym competition considering both physiological [i.e. salivary cortisol (sC) and alpha--amylase (sAA)] and psychological (i.e. state anxiety) responses in relation to exercise intensity and competition outcomes. METHODS: Eleven (5 males and 6 females) elite TeamGym athletes (age: 21--28 yrs) were administered the State--Trait Anxiety Inventory before an official international TeamGym competition. sAA and sC samples were collected 15 minutes prior to competition, after each apparatus, 10--min and 30--min after competition. Exercise intensity was estimated by heart rate (HR) recording and performance was evaluated by three international judges. All these parameters were correlated with competition outcomes. RESULTS: TeamGym competition posed a low exercise load (most of exercise was performed below 85% of the individual HR max ). Significant increases (P<0.004) in sAA (3.53 fold induction) and state anxiety (P=0.045) were observed, with respect to baseline values. Conversely, sC remained stable throughout the competition. Significant (P=0.029) correlation between sAA, state anxiety and competition outcomes emerged. CONCLUSIONS: Present findings provide the first evidence that the psycho--physiological stress response prior to and during competition can affect performance outcome, especially in a technical sport such as TeamGym.

Stress related changes during a half marathon in master endurance athletes.

AIM: The aim of the present study was to investigate heart rate (HR), salivary cortisol (sC) alpha-amylase (sAA) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in relation to competition outcome during a half marathon. METHODS: HR was monitored and salivary samples were collected during an official half marathon in five Master endurance runners (age 47 ± 7 years). RPE was collected using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) 30 minutes after the end of competition. RESULTS: Performance corresponded to 94% of their personal best (PB). Athletes spent 53.7% of total race time at intensities above 95% HRmax. RPE showed values of 68 ± 8 mm. With respect to pre-competition values (25.54 ± 6.39 nmol/L), sC concentrations significantly increased (P=0.043) by 59% immediately after the race (40.54 ± 3.95 nmol/L) and remained elevated until 1 h post exercise. Pre-competition sAA concentrations (90.59 ± 42.86 U/mL) were 118% higher (P=0.043) with respect to time-matched baseline values (197.92 ± 132 U/mL). sAA increased (192%; P=0.043) immediately after the race and was higher than time-matched resting samples. The better each athlete performed the greater cortisol increase during exercise (P<0.001). Performance was not correlated to the anticipatory sAA (the percent difference between pre-competition values and time-matched baseline ones) or to the sAA increase during exercise. CONCLUSION: This is the first attempt to study the stress-related responses during official endurance competitions in master runners. Although the strict criteria of inclusion might have limited the statistical significance, the present findings indicate that endurance competition is a remarkable stressor for psycho-physiological aspects of master athletes.

Maturity-associated variation in change of direction and dribbling speed in early pubertal years and 5-year developmental changes in young soccer players.

AIM: The purpose of the current study was to assess the developmental changes in change of direction and dribbling speed in youth soccer players taking into account skeletal age (SA), maturity status, body size, estimated fat mass, aerobic endurance, lower limb explosive strength and annual volume of training. METHODS: Eighty-three male soccer players aged 10-15 years (SA) at baseline were annually followed over 5 years, resulting in an average 4.4 observations per player. After testing for multicollinearity, multi-level regression modeling was used to examine the longitudinal developmental changes on change of direction and dribbling speed. RESULTS: Maturity-associated variability was significant in change of direction and also dribbling speed among young soccer players aged 12-14 years with better scores being performed by late maturers. Moreover, the predicted longitudinal scores for change of direction and dribbling speed improved with SA (P<0.01), SA2 (P<0.01) and skeletal maturity status entered as an additional developmental predictor (P<0.05). Estimated fat-free mass (P<0.01), aerobic endurance (P<0.01) and lower limb strength (P<0.01) were additional predictors in both models. The soccer-specific skill, dibbling speed, was also explained by annual volume of training (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Skeletal maturity status explains inter-individual variability on maximal short-term run performances with and without the ball possession at early ages of participation in competitive soccer. The effects tend to persist across ages combined with longitudinal changes in body composition and functional fitness. In the particular case of the ball test, annual volume of training was also a longitudinal performance predictor.

Orthorexia nervosa: a frequent eating disordered behavior in athletes.

Striving for enhancing athletic performance, many sportsmen undergo rigid dietary habits, which could lead to eating disorders (EDs) or Orthorexia Nervosa (ON), a psychopathological condition characterized by the obsession for high quality food. The aim of the study was to examine the occurrence of ON in athletes and to verify the relationship between ON and EDs. Five-hundred-seventy-seven athletes and 217 matched controls were administered the following tests: ORTO-15, Eating Attitude Test 26 (EAT-26), Body Uneasiness Test (BUT) and Yale-Brown-Cornell Eating Disorder Scale (YBC-EDS). High positivity to ORTO-15 (28%) and EAT-26 (14%) emerged in athletes, whereas a high rate of BUT positivity was evident among controls (21%). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that independent predictors of ON are previous dieting, age, positivity to YBC-EDS, positivity to EAT-26, competition level, and number of YBC-EDS preoccupations and rituals. Sharing many features with both EDs and Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum, ON represents a crossroad between these pathologic conditions and might compromise the health state of an athlete. Therefore, coaches should consider important to detect symptoms of EDs and ON in their athletes.

Physical self-perception and motor performance in normal-weight, overweight and obese children.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships among physical self-perception, body image and motor performance in Italian middle school students. Two hundred and sixty children were categorized into normal-weight (n=103), overweight (n=86) or obese (n=71) groups. Perceived coordination, body fat and sports competence were assessed using the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire, while body image was measured using Collins' Child Figure Drawings. Individuals' perceptions of strength, speed and agility were assessed using the Perceived Physical Ability Scale. Tests involving the standing long jump, 2 kg medicine-ball throw, 10 × 5 m shuttle-run and 20 and 30 m sprints were also administered. Girls, when compared with boys, and overweight and obese participants, when compared with normal-weight peers, reported lower perceived and actual physical competence, higher perceived body fat and greater body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction mediated all the associations between body mass index (BMI) and the different aspects of physical self-perception in boys, but not in girls. The same pattern of results was found for physical self-perception as a mediator of the relationship between BMI and body dissatisfaction. In conclusion, obesity proved to have adverse effects on both motor performance and physical self-perception.

Stress-related hormonal and psychological changes to official youth Taekwondo competitions.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an official Taekwondo competition on the heart rate (HR), salivary α-amylase (sA-A), salivary free cortisol (sC), and Profile of Mood States (POMS) in 10 young male (14±0 years) and six female (13±1 years) athletes. POMS and hormones were measured 15 min before and directly after the competition. During the recovery phase (30 and 90 min), sA-A and sC were also measured. HR measured during the competition was expressed as a percentage of individual's maximal heart rate (%HR(max) ) to evaluate the intensity of exercise. During the competition, athletes spent 65% of the time working at HR>90% of individuals HR(max). A significant increase (P<0.0001) in sA-A (115%) was observed at the end of the match. At 30 min of recovery, sA-A returned to the pre-competition level. The peak sC values were observed at 30 min of recovery (P<0.001), returning to the pre-competition level at 90 min of recovery. A gender difference (P=0.01) emerged only for sC, although a similar trend was observed for female and male athletes. Significantly higher post-match scores emerged for Anger-hostility (pre: 6.1±1.1, post: 11.2±1.9; P=0.03) and Depression-dejection (pre: 4.5±0.5, post: 10.2±1.9; P=0.006), whereas the reverse picture was observed for Vigour-activity (pre: 23.2±1.2, post: 16.3±1.7; P=0.0006). Taekwondo competition results in temporary changes in the stress-related parameters measured in this study. The present findings suggest that this experimental paradigm can represent a useful model for further research on the effects of various stressors (i.e., training and competition) in Taekwondo athletes of different levels (i.e., novice, international).

Effects of post-exercise recovery interventions on physiological, psychological, and performance parameters.

At present, there is no consensus on the effectiveness of post-exercise recovery interventions on subsequent daily performances. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of 20 min low-intensity water exercises, supine electrostimulation, and passive (sitting rest) recovery modalities on physiological (oxygen consumption, blood lactate concentration, and percentage of hemoglobin saturation in the muscles), psychological (subjective ratings of perceived exertion, muscle pain, and feeling of recovery), and performance (countermovement, bouncing jumping) parameters. During three experimental sessions, 8 men (age: 21.9+/-1.3 yrs; height: 175.8+/-10.7 cm; body mass: 71.2+/-9.8 kg; VO(2max): 57.9+/-5.1 ml x kg x min(-1)) performed a morning and an afternoon submaximal running test. The recovery interventions were randomly administered after the first morning tests. Activity and dietary intake were replicated on each occasion. ANOVA for repeated measures (p<0.05) showed no difference between the morning and afternoon physiological (ratios: range 0.90-1.18) and performance parameters (ratios: range 0.80-1.24), demonstrating that post-exercise recovery interventions do not provide significant beneficial effects over a limited time period. Conversely, subjects perceived water exercises (60%) and electrostimulation (40%) as the most effective interventions, indicating that these recovery strategies might improve the subjective feelings of wellbeing of the individual.

Effects of simulated firefighting on the responses of salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase and psychological variables.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a simulated firefighting intervention on salivary alpha-amylase (sA-A), free cortisol (sC), anxiety (STAI), and profile of mood states (POMS) in 20 male firefighters (age 32 +/- 1 years, VO(2peak): 43 +/- 5 ml/kg per min). During the 12-min firefighting intervention (ambient temperature: 13 +/- 1 degrees C; relative humidity: 63 +/- 1%), individuals spent 63 +/- 28% of the time working at heart rate (HR) >85% of individual HR(max), [La] (peak) 9.2 +/- 2.9 mM and ratings of perceived exertion 16 +/- 2. At 30 min post-intervention significant (p < 0.001) increases in sA-A (174%) and sC (109%) were found with regard to values recorded before and after 90 min of the firefighting intervention. Since no differences emerged between pre-intervention and post intervention for STAI and POMS values, the hormonal changes were attributable to the intense physical stress of the simulated intervention. Further research is needed during real firefighting activities, where high emotional stress may also be present.

Heart rate and blood lactate during official female motorcycling competitions.

The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological load of free practices (F), qualifying sessions (Q), and official races (R) of motorcycling competitions. Twenty-six female riders (age: 30.8 +/- 6.1 yrs) participated in this study. Anthropometric and strength evaluations were performed. Subject's heart rate (HR) was continuously recorded during three periods (5-minute Pre, Ride, and 5-minute Post) of the F, Q, and R phases of competitions. Blood lactate concentrations (La) were determined at rest and after riding. Riders had 56.5 +/- 6.7 kg of body mass, 164 +/- 4 cm of height, 21.6 +/- 4.4 % of body fat, and a BMI of 20.9 +/- 2.3 kg . (m (2)) (-1). Significant handgrip differences were found between the preferred (307 +/- 32 n) and non-preferred (281 +/- 47 N) limbs. During riding, frequency of occurrence of HR >or= 90 % HR (max) was 67 % in F, 74 % in Q, and 83 % in R. La after ridings (4.8 +/- 2.6 mmol . l (-1)) was two-folds (p < 0.05) the basal values (2.2 +/- 0.5 mmol . l (-1)), independently from the competition phases. The present HR and La data show that female road race motorcycling imposes a very intensive physical strain to the riders who need to control their motorbikes while performing frequent accelerations and decelerations.

Physiological and technical aspects of ''6-a-side'' soccer drills.

AIM: The purposes of the present study were: 1) to evaluate heart rate and technical-tactical differences, if any, during ''6-a-side'' drills, played on 2 pitch dimensions (30x40 m and 50x40 m) and duration (3 min and 8 min); 2) to assess the variability of data between repeated experimental sessions; 3) to evaluate training intensities from heart rate at lactate threshold. METHODS: Laboratory measurements of maximal oxygen consumptions, maximum heart rates and lactate thresholds were performed on 9 soccer players who played at Regional level. For test and retest field sessions, the exercise intensities were calculated from heart rate monitoring and match analysis (number of actions, consecutive passes, players involved in a single action) was performed. RESULTS: No significant differences were found in heart rate frequency distributions between test and retest sessions. Statistically significant differences in frequency distributions of heart rate were found only between the 3 min and 8 min drills played on the 40x50 m pitch. Regarding exercise intensity, significant differences (P<0.01) were found for pitch dimension, with higher intensities shown during the 30x40 m pitch trials. When technical data were related to time units, no differences were found among experimental settings. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that coaches could better modulate the training intensity by varying the pitch dimension, with the smaller individual playing area (30x40 m) having a large impact on the metabolic demands of exercise.

Heart rate and match analysis in pre-pubescent soccer players.

The aim of this study was to compare match analysis (using video recordings) and the physiological load (heart rate measured every 5 s, blood lactate measured after the warm-up, first half and second half) of six 11-year-old soccer players during official games of eleven-a-side on a regular-sized pitch (100 x 65 m) and of seven-a-side on a smaller pitch (60 x 40 m). In both games, heart rate exceeded 170 beats x min(-1) 84% of the time, while blood lactate ranged from 1.4 to 8.1 mmol l(-1). No significant differences were recorded for the physiological parameters. For both matches, walking comprised 38% of total time, running 55%, inactivity 3% and jumping 3%. Although there were no significant differences between halves or matches, running for less than 10 s was 10% more frequent in the seven-a-side game. In the seven-a-side game, there were significantly more passes and significantly fewer tackles, suggesting that seven-a-side matches played on smaller pitches may be more suitable for pre-pubescent soccer players.

Energy cost and energy sources of ball routine in rhythmic gymnasts.

The energy cost and the different energy sources of competitive rhythmic ball-routines were assessed in nine young elite rhythmic gymnasts (13-16 years of age). The overall energy requirement of ball exercise (VO2eq) was obtained by adding the amount of VO2 during exercise above resting (VO2ex) to the VO2 up to the fast component of recovery (VO2al) and to the energy equivalent of peak blood lactate accumulation (VO2la-) of recovery. The lactate (La) curve up to 25 minutes of recovery always showed La peaks at 3 min after exercise (4.0 +/- 0.4 mmol/l) and values still above rest at 25 min (2.3 +/- 0.5 mmol/l). Although ball routines were short in duration (90 s), the metabolic power requirement was 1.1 times higher than the subject's VO2max. The energy cost (VO2eq) amounted to 81 +/- 5 ml x kg(-1). Higher fractions of VO2eq were VO2ex 49% and VO2al 42%, while the remaining 9% was due to VO2la-. The aerobic source resulted in the most utilized system due to the subjects' high VO2max (52.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) and anaerobic threshold (LT = 84.4%). The HR and the peak lactate values of ball routine were similar to the values recorded at LT step during treadmill test. Although the HR and VO2 values were significantly correlated (during pre-exercise, exercise, and fast recovery), the exercise intensity derived from HR Kanvonen method during ball routine did not correspond to the % of VO2max.

Reliability of isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength testing in elderly women.

BACKGROUND: Intertrial and test-retest reliability of isokinetic knee extension and flexion strength measurements was studied in eighteen elderly women (mean age 68 +/- 5 yrs), using increasing and decreasing angular velocity testing procedures. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: five reciprocal knee extensions and flexions at three different angular velocities (90, 120, and 180 deg/sec) were performed by means of a MERAC apparatus on two occasions fifteen days apart. MEASURES: Data relative to torque, power and work were considered. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences were found often among the five trials and intraclass correlation coefficients, ranging from 0.03 to 0.90 for extensor muscles; ranging from 0.44 to 0.89 for flexor muscles, were shown among the best three outputs. Peak values were reached within the first three repetitions, though a 20% chance to produce peak outputs was shown in the last two repetitions. Increasing and decreasing test velocity procedures did not consistently show statistically significance for peak outputs. Generally, for each isokinetic parameter higher and more frequently significant correlation coefficients between test and retest experimental sessions were found for peak values (ranging from 0.36 to 0.80) with respect to mean values (ranging from 0.22 to 0.74). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that a test procedure including five trials tends to increase the chance of producing the best peak outputs. Furthermore, considering the best peak and mean performances could be more appropriate when studying elderly women.

Force and power of preferred and non-preferred leg in young soccer players.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of soccer training on strength and power of leg extensor muscles in preadolescent boys and their possible influence in developing a muscular lateral dominance. Twenty male children (mean age 9.6 yr), ten soccer players and ten untrained subjects, participated in this study. Force and power were measured at five constant cranking velocities on an isokinetic bicycle dinamometer. Each isokinetic load was given after each trial. Force and power outputs were calculated for each limb. Soccer players always showed higher and statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) for force and power values for all considered pedal frequencies. No significant differences were observed for force and power values between preferred and non preferred limb. The results demonstrate the effect of soccer training on the increase of force and power of both legs regardless of lateral dominance.

Assessment of static balance in children.

The ability in maintaining body balance of 6-, 8-, and 10-year-old children performing three balance tests on a force platform was studied. Thirty adult subjects served as a reference group. The mean radius (MR) of the posturogram and the mean speed (MS) of the center of foot pressure (COP) were used as the measuring parameters. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA, the Sheffe test and the Student "t" test with a .05 level of significance. A decrease with age in both mean radius and mean speed, indicating an increase in balance ability, was noted. A significant age main effect was found on all tests while significant gender main effect occurred only on the Tandem test. No significant age/sex interaction was found. Significant differences between the 10-year-old and adult groups occurred only in the more difficult balance tests.