ISPCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool for Children (ICAST-C): Translation and adaptation to Mexican Spanish, and psychometric properties tested in Mexico City adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Research using the IPSCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool for Children (ICAST-C), has provided ample evidence of the magnitude of violence against children. Knowledge about its psychometric characteristics and validity is limited. Hence, our objective was to translate and culturally adapt the ICAST-C in adolescents from Mexico City and determine its psychometric properties. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: To determine the psychometric properties of the instrument 723 adolescents between 11 and 18 years of age from 9 public secondary schools in Mexico City participated. METHODS: The study was carried out in two phases: 1) translation and adaptation of the instrument (in 5 steps) and 2) pilot evaluation of the psychometric properties. Total and factor reliabilities were determined, Pearson correlation was used for temporal stability while construct validity was determined by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and final adequacy of the items eliminated by the CFA. RESULTS: We developed the culturally relevant Mexican Spanish version of the ICAST-C. The CFA confirmed the six-factor structure hypothesis. To improve the original model we eliminated ten items, the final model showed good global fit indices (χ2(1310) = 2207.68, p < .01, χ2/df = 1.68; CFI =0.95; RMSEA = 0.02 [CI95% 0.02-0.03]; SRMR = 0.08). Total and factor reliabilities were adequate (Alpha = 0.79-0.92, r = 0.52-0.75), except for the non-violent discipline factor (Alpha = 0.59, r = 0.38). CONCLUSIONS: While these data suggest that this version of the ICAST-C is valid and reliable for adolescents in Mexico City public secondary schools, further research should evaluate the psychometric properties in a national sample.

Salud mental infantil: una prioridad a considerar / Children's mental health: a priority to consider

Resumen: Objetivo: Identificar posibles cambios en la frecuencia de manifestaciones sindromáticas sugerentes de problemas de salud mental en población infantil mexicana empleando el Cuestionario Breve de Tamizaje y Diagnóstico (CBTD), a lo largo de 15 años. Material y métodos: Se analiza información de diferentes estudios en población general, escuelas y práctica médica. La estimación obtenida en la Ciudad de México fue utilizada como población de referencia para comparación. Resultados: Se apreciaron incrementos notables respecto a la prevalencia de síndromes como el déficit de atención e hiperactividad, y conducta oposicionista y explosiva, así como manifestaciones de ansiedad y depresivas. Estas últimas resultaron más frecuentes en la edad escolar tardía. Las alteraciones en el lenguaje y la epilepsia también mostraron incremento en diferentes grupos de edad. Conclusiones: Se discuten los hallazgos a la luz de estudios longitudinales en la literatura, así como de reportes de población adolescente en nuestro país.

Abstract: Objective: To identify possible changes in the frequency of psychopathological syndromes in Mexican children population over a 15-year period using the Brief Screening and Diagnostic Questionnaire (CBTD in Spanish). Materials and methods: Information gathered from different studies on the general population, schools and medical general practice are analyzed. Results from the Mexico City study were used as base rates for comparisons. Results: Higher prevalence of externalizing syndromes such as attention deficit and hyperactivity, oppositional and explosive conduct were very evident. Also, anxiety and depressive syndromes showed a notable increase. Prevalence of abnormal language and probable epilepsy were also increased on different age-groups. Conclusions: Findings are discussed in light of longitudinal reports in the literature as well as on reports in adolescent population in Mexico.

[Children's mental health: a priority to consider]. / Salud mental infantil: una prioridad a considerar.

OBJECTIVE: To Identify possible changes in the frequency of psychopathological syndromes in Mexican children population over a 15-year period using the Brief Screening and Diagnostic Questionnaire (CBTD in Spanish). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information gathered from different studies on the general population, schools and medical general practice are analyzed. Results from the Mexico City study were used as base rates for comparisons. RESULTS: Higher prevalence of externalizing syndromes such as attention deficit and hyperactivity, oppositional and explosive conduct were very evident. Also, anxiety and depressive syndromes showed a notable increase. Prevalence of abnormal language and probable epilepsy were also increased on different age-groups. CONCLUSIONS: Findings are discussed in light of longitudinal reports in the literature as well as on reports in adolescent population in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: Identificar posibles cambios en la frecuencia de manifestaciones sindromáticas sugerentes de problemas de salud mental en población infantil mexicana empleando el Cuestionario Breve de Tamizaje y Diagnóstico (CBTD), a lo largo de 15 años. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Se analiza información de diferentes estudios en población general, escuelas y práctica médica. La estimación obtenida en la Ciudad de México fue utilizada como población de referencia para comparación. RESULTS: Se apreciaron incrementos notables respecto a la prevalencia de síndromes como el déficit de atención e hiperactividad, y conducta oposicionista y explosiva, así como manifestaciones de ansiedad y depresivas. Estas últimas resultaron más frecuentes en la edad escolar tardía. Las alteraciones en el lenguaje y la epilepsia también mostraron incremento en diferentes grupos de edad. CONCLUSIONS: Se discuten los hallazgos a la luz de estudios longitudinales en la literatura, así como de reportes de población adolescente en nuestro país.

Internal consistency and confirmatory validity of the parenting practices inventory in a Mexican population sample / Consistencia interna y validez confirmatoria del inventario de prácticas de crianza en una muestra de población mexicana

Abstract Introduction Parenting practices refer to specific behaviours used by parents and caretakers of children to guide childhood development and socialization goals. These practices are associated with children's health, psychological, and physical development. Objective To determine the psychometric properties of the Parenting Practices Inventory (PPI) among a group of child caregivers in Mexico City. Method The PPI was applied to 443 caregivers of children and adolescents, who attended a general health care centre in Mexico City. For the psychometric evaluation of the instrument, the full distribution and discrimination of the items was analysed first. Then, the validity of the construct was tested through an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory analysis with structural equation modelling. Results The internal consistency of the PPI showed α = .867 and 41.25% of variance explained for all four dimensions of interest. The confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model had goodness of fit. It included twenty-four items with adequate consistency and validity indices. Discussion and conclusion The PPI is therefore a potentially useful psychometric measure for evaluating parenting practices among this type of population and could have major implications for the development of interventions and preventive programmes. It provides scientific bases for diagnostic decision-making and primary health care from the moment of initial contact to specialized medical care.

Resumen Introducción Las prácticas de crianza se refieren a comportamientos específicos utilizados por los padres y cuidadores de niños para guiar su desarrollo y metas de socialización infantil. Estas prácticas están asociadas con la salud, el desarrollo psicológico y físico de los niños. Objetivo Determinar las propiedades psicométricas del Inventario de Prácticas de Crianza (IPC) entre un grupo de cuidadores de niños en la Ciudad de México. Método El IPC se aplicó a 443 cuidadores de niños y adolescentes, que asistieron a consulta médica general en un Centro de salud en la Ciudad de México. Para la evaluación psicométrica del instrumento se analizó la distribución total y la discriminación de los reactivos. La validez de constructo se probó a través de análisis factorial exploratorio y análisis confirmatorio con modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Resultados El IPC mostró α = .867 y 41.25% de la varianza explicada para las cuatro dimensiones de interés. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró que el modelo tuvo buena bondad de ajuste. Incluyó veinticuatro ítems con una consistencia e índices de validez adecuados. Discusión y conclusión El IPC es una medida psicométrica potencialmente útil para evaluar las prácticas de crianza en esta población y podría tener implicaciones importantes para el desarrollo de intervenciones y programas preventivos. Esto brinda bases científicas para la toma de decisiones en la atención primaria de la salud desde el momento del contacto inicial hasta la atención médica especializada en caso de ser requerida.

Glucose and cholesterol stabilization in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with depressive and anxiety symptoms by problem-solving therapy in primary care centers in Mexico City.

Aim The aim of this study was to determine if the problem-solving therapy (PST) helps control metabolic variables in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who show depressive and anxiety symptoms. BACKGROUND: T2DM is a chronic-degenerative multifactorial disease. It is considered one of the main public health problems in the world, and it represents an important social and economic burden. It is frequently associated with major depression and anxiety disorders, which are related with high glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) concentrations and poor metabolic control. METHOD: We initially included 123 patients diagnosed with T2DM from five primary care centers (PCC) in Mexico City. HbA1c, central glucose, and lipid profile were measured in each patient. In addition, the Kessler psychological distress scale (K-10), the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory were applied at the beginning and, to those who continued, at the end of the PST, as well as four months later. Findings In total, 36 patients completed the PST and the follow-up. There was a significant decrease in depressive and anxiety symptoms (P<0.001), as well as in total cholesterol (P=0.002), HbA1c (P=0.05), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (P=0.022). The PST helps reduce depressive and anxiety symptoms and may help stabilize glucose and cholesterol up to four months. Further studies on this area are recommended. If our findings are confirmed, the PST could help improve the quality of life of thousands of individuals with psychiatric-metabolic co-morbidity who only visit PCC.

Crude and Adjusted Prevalence of Sleep Complaints in Mexico City.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the crude prevalence rates of several sleep complaints and the prevalence for each one adjusted for the coexistence of symptoms in other sleep domains in a representative sample of adult individuals from Mexico City. METHODS: A probabilistic sample of 1933 adult individuals living in Mexico City was surveyed using fourteen questions of the Sleep Disorders Questionnaire to assess sleep-related symptoms and sleep complaints. Estimates of crude prevalence rates for each sleep disturbance and adjusted for a score ≥ the 80th. percentile in the questionnaire were calculated. RESULTS: The following prevalence rates were found: insomnia 39.7%; excessive diurnal sleepiness (EDS) 20.9%; obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (EDS plus snoring) 7.7%; habitual snoring 9.9%; restless legs syndrome (RLS) 4.4%; narcolepsy 0.9%; sleep paralysis (SP) 13.2%; and hypnotic use 1.2%. When prevalence rates were calculated accounting for symptoms in other sleep domains, notable reductions were observed in complaints of insomnia (17.3%), EDS (10.3%), and SP (8.7%), while minor decreases were observed for complaints of snoring (7.4%), OSAS (5%), and RLS (3.8%); narcolepsy prevalence practically did not change (0.9%). CONCLUSIONS: Sleep complaints are highly prevalent in Mexican adult population. More than a half of the individuals with a given sleep disturbance have a global sleep deterioration associated to psychosocial and health impairments.

Study of minor physical anomalies in complete nuclear Mexican families. Evidence of neurodevelopmental problems in schizophrenia.

INTRODUCTION: Minor physical anomalies (MPA) are dysmorphic features that reflect deviations in early development, are morphological variants that appear during the first trimester of pregnancy and could be used as a marker of disease risk in susceptible people. The literature agrees that the number of MPA is higher in patients with schizophrenia compared with their relatives and healthy subjects. The purpose of this study is to compare the MPA, assessed using the Gourion Scale, in complete nuclear families (families with a member with schizophrenia and control families) by determining the MPA mean, concordance and heritability for the total score on the MPA Gourion Scale for each anomaly. METHOD: The sample consisted of 60 families with at least one schizophrenic patient (284 members) and 61 control families (249 members). RESULTS: The mean total score for the scale was 5.72 ± 2.3 MPA in the case of families with at least one schizophrenic patient and 1.8 ± 4.46 MPA for control families. The average for families of patients without considering the patient in the analysis was 5.59 ± 2.3 MPA; for patients, the mean was 6.14 ± 2.4 MPA. In the analysis by anomaly differences were found only in eleven anomalies found no evidence of heritability or concordance. CONCLUSIONS: MPA occur more frequently in patients, but a pattern of low consistency between them persists. It is concluded that MPA could be a marker of neurodevelopmental problems, but it is not suitable to consider them a Gourion scale as endophenotype.

[Concurrent validity and efficiency of the CBTD for the surveillance of mental health on children and adolescents at a primary health care center in Mexico]. / Eficiencia y validez concurrente del CBTD para la vigilancia de la salud mental de niños y adolescentes en un centro de atención primaria de México.

BACKGROUND: Child psychopathology can e understood as normal development gone awry. Attention to psychosocial and behavioural problems has long been recommended as a critical component of well-child care. Likewise, screening for emotional and behavioural problems has been recommended as a routine part of health supervision visits. Different screening instruments have been developed and are widely used. Most of them include a dimensional measurement for internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems, but there is also the need to develop screening algorithms for specific psychiatric syndromes. OBJECTIVE: To present the concurrent validity and efficiency indicators of the Brief Screening and Diagnostic Questionnaire, CBTD, in a primary care health center (PCHC) at Mexico City, as a tool for the surveillance of mental health on children and adolescents. MATERIALS AND METHOD: A sample of 667 consecutive patients (4-16 years old) whose parents responded the CBTD. All patients who obtained a score of five or more symptoms were clinically interviewed using the MINI-KID, together with one of every ten subjects with a lower score. RESULTS: Efficiency showed a sensitivity of 68%, specificity of 82%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 88% and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 57%. When two or more CBTD syndromes are present the PPV is almost 100%. Concurrent validity showed a fair agreement for most of the CBTD syndromes as compared to DSM-IV diagnoses. Syndromes suggesting brain abnormalities, not included in scales of other widely used screening instruments, showed a PPV of 92% and NPV of 96.4%. CONCLUSIONS: The screening results from the CBTD can be used either categorically or dimensionally facilitating the surveillance of mental health on children and adolescents as different syndromatic profiles can be identified and followed for evaluation, along with complementary familial and psychosocial information.

Guía de práctica clínica para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de depresión en los adultos mayores

Resumen: Introducción La depresión cada día cobra mayor importancia, y se estima que en el año 2020 será la segunda causa de años de vida saludable perdidos a escala mundial y la primera en países desarrollados, por lo que el diagnóstico adecuado y oportuno permitirá brindar un manejo integral que incluya psicoterapia y tratamiento médico adecuado, lo que mejorará de manera significativa la calidad de vida y el pronóstico de estas personas. En atención primaria existe sub diagnóstico y retraso en la identificación de la depresión, por lo que, desde el inicio del tratamiento, impacta negativamente en el bienestar de los individuos, en la salud pública y en los costos directos e indirectos de los servicios sanitarios. Es frecuente que el médico de atención primaria considere como "causa" de la depresión las quejas de la vida cotidiana, la incapacidad para hacer frente al estrés familiar, el aislamiento social o el cambio de roles y los problemas financieros; por lo tanto la considera "justificada" y evita proporcionar tratamiento, cuando en realidad esta incapacidad suele ser ocasionada por la misma depresión. La depresión es uno de los padecimientos psicogeriátricos más frecuentes y en México su prevalencia global es de 9.5% en mujeres y 5% en hombres mayores de 60 años. En la mayoría de los casos no es diagnosticada por la presentación atípica de la misma o por la falsa creencia de que forma parte del envejecimiento normal, puesto que en el adulto mayor la depresión se puede esconder en síntomas somáticos, ya sea como manifestaciones del síndrome depresivo o porque a causa de éste se acentúan los síntomas de otras enfermedades concomitantes. Los síntomas cognitivos secundarios se presentan con más frecuencia en este grupo etario. Objetivo Proporcionar a los médicos de primer nivel de atención, una guía de práctica clínica con los elementos técnico-médicos suficientes que faciliten el diagnóstico y tratamiento integral de adultos mayores con depresión. Usuarios. La guía está dirigida a los médicos del primer nivel de atención. Población blanco. Hombres y mujeres de 60 años de edad en adelante. Método El estudio comprendió dos fases: el diseño y la validación de la guía clínica. Selección de evidencia 1. Las palabras clave para la búsqueda fueron: Depresión, adulto mayor, guías clínicas, prevalencia, atención primaria, valoración, tratamiento, riesgo de suicidio. 2. Bases de datos consultadas: Cochrane, Pub-Med y Medline, en el período de 1990-2006. 3. Se encontraron 26 referencias para depresión mayor en adulto mayor: ocho meta análisis de estudios clínicos aleatorizados, dos clínicos aleatorizados, uno de cohorte, 12 descriptivos no experimentales y tres artículos de libros (DSM-IV TR; CIE 10, Manual de psicogeriatría). 4. Categoría de evidencia y fuerza de recomendación, indica al usuario el origen de las recomendaciones emitidas. En el algoritmo de la guía clínica se identifican los conceptos o el sustento de cada una de las recomendaciones. En la presente guía el diagnóstico de depresión se fundamenta en la CIE 10 y su gradación podría ser comparable con la depresión mayor del DSM IV TR. Se incluye el diagnóstico diferencial, los criterios de referencia al psiquiatra, los lineamientos para el tratamiento farmacológico, psicoterapéutico y psicosocial; fase de inicio y fase de mantenimiento. Conclusión La guía de práctica clínica propuesta se basa en metodología rigurosa, da al médico elementos suficientes para realizar el diagnóstico oportuno, así como el tratamiento integral en adultos mayores con depresión, e incorpora criterios con base en evidencia científica que permitirán actualizarla y evaluar su solidez ante el surgimiento de nueva evidencia, manteniendo así su validez.

Summary: Introduction Depression is growing in importance every day. It is estimated that by the year 2020 it will be worldwide the second cause for the loss of healthy life years and the first in developed countries. Considering this, an adequate and opportune diagnosis will allow for a complete handling of the disorder. This should include adequate psychotherapy and medical treatment which will in turn improve significantly the prognosis and life quality of depressed individuals. In the primary care area, sub-diagnosis and delays to identify depression are common. These have a negative effect on the individuals' well-being, in public health and in the direct and indirect costs of health services. It is not uncommon for primary care practitioners to consider everyday complaints, the inability to cope with family stress, social isolation, role change and money problems as «causes ¼ for depression. Thus, they deem depression «justified ¼ and fail to offer treatment when actually this very inability is often caused by depression. Depression is among the most frequent psycho-geriatric ailments. In Mexico, its overall prevalence is 9.5% in women and 5% in men age 60 or more. In most instances, it goes undiagnosed given its atypical expression or the false belief which considers it part of the normal aging process. In the elderly, depression may conceal somatic symptoms, be it as expressions of the depressive syndrome or because these same symptoms aggravate symptoms from other concomitant diseases. Secondary cognitive symptoms are more frequent among this age group. Objective To provide physicians at primary care a guideline with enough technical-medical elements to facilitate the timely diagnosis and integral treatment of elderly with depression. Method This study comprised two phases: design and validation of the guideline. Evidence selection 1. Key words for search: depression, elderly, clinical guidelines, prevalence, primary care, assessment, treatment, suicide risk. 2. Data bases used: Cochrane, Pub-Med and Medline for the 1990-2006 period. 3. Twenty-six references for major depression in the elderly were found: eight random meta-analysis, two random clinical, one cohort, twelve descriptive non-experimental, and three book articles (DSM-IV[HRM1] TR; CIE 10, Psycho-geriatrics Manual). 4. Evidence category and strength of recommendation. This indicates the user about the origin of recommendations issued. In the algorithm from the clinical guide, the concepts or support for each recommendation are identified. In this guide, the diagnosis of depression is based on the CIE-10 and its ranking may be comparable to that for major depression in the DSM-IV TR. Differential diagnosis; criteria for referring a patient to the psychiatrist; guidelines for pharmacological, psychotherapeutic and psychosocial treatment; onset phase and maintenance phase are included. Thus, the clinical practice guide proposed is based on a strict methodology. It offers enough elements for the general practitioner to assess an opportune and complete treatment for elderly people with depression. In addition, it incorporates criteria based on scientific evidence, which will allow updating it, and evaluating its solidity in the face of new evidence, which will in turn maintain its validity.

Validez del Cuestionario Breve de Tamizaje y Diagnóstico (CBTD) para niños y adolescentes en escenarios clínicos

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

SUMMARY Background: Psychopathology in children can be conceptualized as a normal development that has gone awry. That is, some conducts which are expectable at a certain age could turn to be inappropriate and pathological if they persist. When some traits, conducts or signs are very conspicuous and they are frequently present together, they are conventionally called syndromes. Studies registering children's observed conducts by the parents have been very useful to identify groups of symptoms, and several scales have been designed to elicit psychopathology such as the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), Conner's scales, and the Child Behavior Checklist, CBCL-P. With the exception of the CBQ, the other two instruments, although frequently used as screening instruments in several studies, are too long or too specific to be systematically employed at the general practice services and in the community. More recently, Goodman designed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which is a 25-item instrument showing an acceptable predictive validity for three groups of disorders: conduct, emotional, hyperactivity and inattentive. In Mexico, our epidemiological work on children's mental health started at the end of the eighties using the Report Questionnaire for Children (RQC) which is a 10-item screening instrument developed at the end of the seventies for a WHO collaborative research with the aim of extending psychiatric services to primary care settings. In our population, the instrument showed good efficiency with a positive predictive value (PPV) of 76% and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 99%, and it has been useful in detecting mental health problems both in the general population, as well as in primary care services. However, the need to identify what kind of disorders are they and estimating their prevalence remains. The Brief Screening and Diagnostic Questionnaire (CBTD) was built based on previous experience using the RQC. Seventeen items which explored symptoms frequently reported as motives for seeking attention at the out-patient mental health services were added to the original 10 questions of the RQC. Most of them are items included in the CBCL-P, which explore hyperactivity, impulsivity, attention deficit, sadness, inhibition, oppositional and antisocial behaviors, and eating behaviors associated with low or high weight. The aim was to include cardinal symptoms that could lead to identify probable specific syndromes and disorders, based on the parent's report. The reliability of the instrument was measured using the Kuder- Richarson coefficient (KR-20), obtaining a 0.81 value. Based on responses obtained in a general population sample of 1686 children aged 4 to 16 years in Mexico City, the score at the 90th percentile, five symptoms, was established to define probable caseness. Also, using logistic regression analysis, the association between the cardinal symptoms for different disorders -as defined in the DSMIV and ICD-10 diagnostic criteria- and the rest of the items from the questionnaire was studied in order to obtain symptom profiles or syndromes signaling probable psychiatric disorders. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the concurrent validity and the efficiency of the diagnostic algorithms of the CBTD, as compared with the psychiatric diagnoses of children attended at two out-patient mental health services in Mexico City. Method: A random sample of consecutive new out-patients aged 4 to 16 years was obtained. The CBTD was administered to the accompanying parent before the consultation. Clinical evaluation was done independently and blind to these results; the psychiatrists emitted diagnoses following the ICD-10 criteria. Diagnostic reliability between this initial evaluation and further diagnosis of hyperactivity and attention deficit disorder, depressive disorder, oppositional and conduct disorder and anxiety disorders, established at the different clinics of the children's psychiatric hospital showed good agreement with Kappa values ranging from 0.60 to 0.83. Concurrent validity between the diagnostic algorithms of the CBTD and the psychiatric diagnoses was measured using Kappa and Yule statistics. Efficiency measures: sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) were also obtained. Results: A total of 530 children were included in the study; 73% were male and 27% female; mean-age was 9.35 (s.d. 3.12) year old. Only eight patients reported less than five symptoms in the CBTD. The 4/5 cut-off point showed a sensitivity of 98.7% and PPV of 99.8%. However, as very few children were below the cut-off point, specificity resulted in 50% and NPV was 12.5%. Also, as the children attended the psychiatric services, they showed a highly symptomatic profile (median= 11 symptoms), concurrent validity analyses were first carried out in a sub-sample including only those patients with three CBTD syndromes at the most (n= 102). Diagnostic algorithms for attention deficit and hyperactivity, depression, and conduct disorders showed fair agreement with the corresponding psychiatric diagnoses: Yule statistic range from 0.43 to 0.55. As it could be expected, sensitivity (range: 71% to 84%) and NPV (range: 85% to 97%) were higher for the most general algorithms, while specificity and PPV were higher for the most stringent definitions. Analyses including the whole sample showed a sensitivity ranging from 54% to 95%, and NPV from 70% to 98% for the different diagnostic algorithms, and thus indicating a high efficiency of this brief instrument. Conclusion: The CBTD seems to be a good and efficient screening instrument, useful for the detection of the most frequent psychiatric disorders in childhood and early adolescence. Results suggest that it should be tested and incorporated as a tool at primary health services for the systematic surveillance of mental health during childhood and adolescence.

Validación de una escala clinimétrica para el diagnóstico de depresión en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2, en unidades de atención primaria / Validation of a clinimetric scale for the diagnosis of depression in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2, in primary healt care

Background. The prevalence of depression in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) is of up to 49.3% in primary care clinics. Nevertheless, medical doctors only recognize only 30% of these cases. Depression is associated with poor glycemic control, increase of diabetes complications, deterioration in patient's quality of life, and increase in demand and resources to provide care. The objective was to design and validate a clinimetric scale for the diagnosis of depression (CSDD in patients with DM2, in primary care units. Patients and methods. The study was conducted on 528 DM2 patients in Family Medicine Unit No. 10 of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Social Security Institute), during 2003. A diagnostic test design was employed, with the golden standard consisting of the composite international diagnostic interview. Samples were constructed around consecutive cases. Depression and its degrees were the dependent variables. Absolute and relative frequencies were calculated, along with the Kappa index, sensibility, specificity, positive predictive values (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV) and ROC curves. Results. The CSDD presented a concordance between observers of 0.7739. The best cut-off point in the ROC curves for diagnosis of depression was 6, which obtained a sensibility of 95.3%, a specificity of 96.8%, a PPV of 92.2%, and a NPV of 98.1%. Conclusions. The CSDD is a consistent and valid instrument and easy to use for the diagnosis of depression in patients with DM2 in primary care clinic.

Antecedentes. La prevalencia de depresión en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2) es hasta de 49.3% en unidades de atención primaria. El médico reconoce únicamente 30% de los casos, lo que lleva al paciente a un pobre control glucémico, aumento en las complicaciones propias de la diabetes, deterioro de la calidad de vida, mayor número de consultas e importante consumo de recursos institucionales. El objetivo del estudio fue diseñar y validar una escala clinimétrica para el diagnóstico de depresión (ECDD) en pacientes con DM2, en unidades de atención primaria. Pacientes y métodos. El estudio se llevó a cabo en 528 pacientes con DM2, en la Unidad de Medicina Familiar No. 10, del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, durante 2003. Se utilizó un diseño de prueba diagnóstica, el estándar de oro fue la Cédula Diagnóstica Internacional Compuesta. El muestreo fue por casos consecutivos. La variable dependiente fue depresión y sus grados. Se calcularon frecuencias absolutas y relativas, índice Kappa, sensibilidad, especificidad, valores predictivos positivo (VPP) y negativo (VPN) y curvas ROC. Resultados. La ECDD presentó una concordancia interobservador de 0.7739. El mejor punto de corte en las curvas ROC para diagnosticar depresión fue 6, con el cual se obtuvo una sensibilidad de 95.3%, especificidad 96.8%, VPP 92.2% y VPN 98.1%. Conclusiones. La ECDD aplicada en pacientes con DM2 es un instrumento consistente, válido y de fácil aplicación para diagnosticar depresión durante el acto de la consulta en atención primaria.

[Validation of a clinimetric scale for the diagnosis for depression in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2, in primary health care]. / Validación de una escala clinimétrica para el diagnóstico de depresión en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2, en unidades de atención primaria.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of depression in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) is of up to 49.3% in primary care clinics. Nevertheless, medical doctors only recognize only 30% of these cases. Depression is associated with poor glycemic control, increase of diabetes complications, deterioration in patient's quality of life, and increase in demand and resources to provide care. The objective was to design and validate a clinimetric scale for the diagnosis of depression (CSDD in patients with DM2, in primary care units. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study was conducted on 528 DM2 patients in Family Medicine Unit No. 10 of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Social Security Institute), during 2003. A diagnostic test design was employed, with the golden standard consisting of the composite international diagnostic interview. Samples were constructed around consecutive cases. Depression and its degrees were the dependent variables. Absolute and relative frequencies were calculated, along with the Kappa index, sensibility, specificity, positive predictive values (PPV) and negative predictive values (NPV) and ROC curves. RESULTS: The CSDD presented a concordance between observers of 0.7739. The best cut-off point in the ROC curves for diagnosis of depression was 6, which obtained a sensibility of 95.3%, a specificity of 96.8%, a PPV of 92.2%, and a NPV of 98.1%. CONCLUSIONS: The CSDD is a consistent and valid instrument and easy to use for the diagnosis of depression in patients with DM2 in primary care clinic.

[Mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean: a public health priority]. / Los trastornos mentales en América Latina y el Caribe: asunto prioritario para la salud pública.

OBJECTIVE: The growing burden of mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean has become too large to ignore. There is a need to know more about the prevalence of mental disorders and the gap between the number of individuals with psychiatric disorders and the number of those persons who remain untreated even though effective treatments exist. Having that knowledge would make it possible to improve advocacy, adopt better policies, formulate innovative intervention programs, and apportion resources commensurate with needs. METHODS: Data were extracted from community-based psychiatric epidemiological studies published in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1980 through 2004 that used structured diagnostic instruments and provided prevalence rates. Estimates of the crude rates in Latin America and the Caribbean for the various disorders were determined by calculating the mean and median rates across the studies, by gender. In addition, data on service utilization were reviewed in order to calculate the treatment gap for specific disorders. RESULTS: Nonaffective psychosis (including schizophrenia) had an estimated mean one-year prevalence rate of 1.0%; major depression, 4.9%; and alcohol use abuse or dependence, 5.7%. Over one-third of individuals with nonaffective psychosis, over half of those with an anxiety disorder, and some three-fourths of those with alcohol use abuse or dependence did not receive mental health care from either specialized or general health services. CONCLUSIONS: The current treatment gap in mental health care in Latin America and the Caribbean remains wide. Further, current data likely greatly underestimate the number of untreated individuals. The epidemiological transition and changes in the population structure will further widen the treatment gap in Latin America and the Caribbean unless mental health policies are formulated or updated and programs and services are expanded.

Los trastornos mentales en América Latina y el Caribe: asunto prioritario para la salud pública / Mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean: a public health priority

OBJETIVO: La creciente carga de trastornos mentales que afecta a las poblaciones de América Latina y el Caribe es demasiado grande para hacer caso omiso de ella. Por lo tanto, es una necesidad impostergable conocer la prevalencia de los trastornos mentales y la brecha de tratamiento, que está dada por la diferencia entre las tasas de prevalencia verdadera y las de las personas que han sido tratadas, que en algunos casos es grande pese a la existencia de tratamientos eficaces. Si se dispone de mayor informacion, se hace más factible 1) abogar mejor por los intereses de las personas que necesitan atención, 2) adoptar políticas más eficaces, 3) formular programas de intervención innovadores y 4) adjudicar recursos en conformidad con las necesidades observadas. MÉTODOS: Los datos se obtuvieron de estudios comunitarios publicados en América Latina y el Caribe entre 1980 y 2004. En esas investigaciones epidemiológicas se usaron instrumentos diagnósticos estructurados y se estimaron tasas de prevalencia. Las tasas brutas de diversos trastornos psiquiátricos en América Latina y el Caribe se estimaron a partir de las tasas media y mediana extraídas de los estudios, desglosadas por sexo. También se extrajeron los datos correspondientes al uso de servicios de salud mental para poder calcular la brecha en el tratamiento según trastornos específicos. RESULTADOS: Las psicosis no afectivas (entre ellas la esquizofrenia) tuvieron una prevalencia media estimada durante el año precedente de 1,0 por ciento; la depresión mayor, de 4,9 por ciento; y el abuso o la dependencia del alcohol, de 5,7 por ciento. Más de la tercera parte de las personas afectadas por psicosis no afectivas, más de la mitad de las afectadas por trastornos de ansiedad, y cerca de tres cuartas partes de las que abusaban o dependían del alcohol no habían recibido tratamiento psiquiátrico alguno, sea en un servicio especializado o en uno de tipo general. CONCLUSIONES: La actual brecha en el tratamiento de los trastornos mentales en América Latina y el Caribe sigue siendo abrumadora. Además, las tasas actuales probablemente subestiman el número de personas sin atención. La transición epidemiológica y los cambios en la composición poblacional acentuarán aun más la brecha en la atención en América Latina y el Caribe, a no ser que se formulen nuevas políticas de salud mental o que se actualicen las existentes, procurando incluir en ellas la extensión de los programas y servicios.

Los trastornos mentales en America Latina y el Caribe: asunto prioritario para las salud publica / Mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean: a public health priority

OBJECTIVE: The growing burden of mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean has become too large to ignore. There is a need to know more about the prevelance of mental disorders and the gap between the number of individuals with psychiatric disorders and the number of those persons who remain untreated even though effective treatments exist. Having that knowledge would make it possible to improve advocacy, adopt better policies, formulate innovative intervention programs, and apportion resources commensurate with needs. METHODS: Data were extracted from the community-based psychiatric epidemiological studies published in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1980 through 2004 that used structured diagnostic instruments and provided prevalance rates. Estimates of the crude rates in Latin America and the Caribbean for the various disorders were determined by calculating the mean and median rates across the studies, by gender. In addition, data on service utilization were reviewed in order to calculate the treatment gap for specific disorders. RESULTS: Non affective psychosis (including schizophrenia) and an estimated mean one-year prevalence rate of 1.0 percent; major depression, 4.9 percent; and alcohol use abuse or dependence, 5.7 percent. Over one-third of individuals with nonaffective psychosis, over half of those with an anxiety disorder, and some three-fourths of those with alcohol use abuse or dependence did not receive mental health care from either specialized or general health services. CONCLUSIONS: The current treatment gap in mental health care in Latin America and the Caribbean remains wide. Further, current data likely greatly underestimate the number of untreated individuals. The epidemiological transition and changes in the population structure will further widen the treatment gap in Latin America and the Caribbean unless mental health policies are formulted or updated and programs and services are expanded (AU)

Panorama del trabajo de investigación en epidemiología psiquiátrica en México: últimos 30 años

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Abstract: Mental health frames and policies to enforce them cannot be excluded from the social context, neither the population's health conditions or the international tendencies. Their strategic place depends on the role they play in the global milieu, and on the benefits derived from what is done in terms of prevention and attention within the field. Psychiatric epidemiology serves as a tool for knowing mental disorders distribution, the risk factors implied in their etiology and evolution, as well as the elements influencing their detection and treatment. But psychiatric epidemiology has remained behind other branches of epidemiology given the problems for conceptualizing and measuring mental disorders. Thus, most of the work has been basically descriptive. Nevertheless it has been possible to move forward through historical series, analyses of community diagnosis, health services evaluation, risk measurement, description of clinical frames, identification of new syndromes and its related causes, and in carrying out national and international representative surveys in general population. This paper has four objectives: 1. to present an overview of the work done in epidemiologic psychiatry in Mexico for the last 30 years; 2. to analyze the main areas explored; 3. to identify the most used designs; and 4. to enumerate the populations studied. Method. Articles about different aspects related to study and analysis of psychiatric epidemiology in Mexico were collected, including those reporting empirical results. The search was performed in a bibliographic database consulted in the Centro de Información en Salud Mental y Adicciones (CISMAD), located at the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente. Approximately 158 papers published in national and international journals were reviewed. Results. In the 1970's, work was aimed towards historical analysis seeking to provide an epidemiologic view of psychiatric disorders in Mexico. Interest was set on aspects related to attention of mental patients, the teaching of psychiatry, and in the advance of psychiatric knowledge. Some studies were done to have a look at the frequency and characteristics ofcertain diseases in unexplored populations. During the 1980's there was a renewed interest in dissecting the status of epidemiologic psychiatry and mental health, together with an intention to state its role in the future. Cross sectional studies were performed to know the prevalence ofdifferent mental illnesses in medical care. Validity and reliability of several detection and diagnosis instruments were evaluated, and some essays about the importance of having a clear view of attention needs and demands were carried out. At the beginning of the 1990's there were descriptive studies in rural and urban populations to describe the main elements determining the use of health services and the quest patterns for different attention options. New diagnosis instruments were used in subjects attending the first and second levels of care. Research on schizophrenia began with reviews and dissertations about its status in Mexico and other countries. Results of the Mental Health National Survey showing prevalence in general population were made public. Home base surveys made possible to know the scope of mental illness in children, adolescents, and adults. The use of epidemiology in child psychiatry allowed the inclusion of developmental psychopathology in the analysis of the interaction and interdependence of biological, psychological, and social variables. The 21st century set the emergence of the first longitudinal reports on suicide. Work continues on the prevalence of mental illness and new approaches on risk factors are added. Research on the frequency of disorders from well-defined diagnosis criteria is signed. Use and abuse of substances, and violence against women are studied to know their effects on mental health. The Survey on Psychiatric Morbidity was planned and conducted with great methodological rigor, and thus it was included in the first generation of ICPE studies, which has enabled data comparison on an international basis. Results have shown that depressive disorders are the most recurrent, whereas disorders related to substance abuse and dependence affect basically men, and that anxiety disorders are the most chronic. In 2000, the World Health Organization launched an initiative to make national epidemiologic studies in different countries, and Mexico was the first Latin American country to participate. The National Psychiatric Epidemiology Survey initial results have confirmed that the prevalence of disorders along life is 28.6%, and that annual prevalence is 14%. Discussion. It is important to underline the need to pay attention to mental health problems from a preventive approach. In this respect, Mexico is a little behind and it is urgent to grow according to the advances, instruments, and techniques used in other countries. It is also important to acknowledge the work done so far; in this sense, the development of national surveys accounts for it. General population studies allow for the generation of an overview of the needs and the basic issues to create preventive interventions. Mexican epidemiologic psychiatry is in a developmental stage, stressed by the use of standardized diagnosis criteria to get comparable data (both from Mexico and other countries in the world). However, the study designs employed until now do not allow for the exploration of the temporary evolution of disorders and related factors to be more exhaustive. Besides, there are limitations in evaluating health services, which could be overcome through cost-effectiveness analyses. In the national context it is notorious the lack of inquiring about the diagnosis boundaries, which should be one of the main directions of psychiatric epidemiology in the next years. This would be highly relevant taking into account that Mexico is a transition country that accepts and uses both European and American criteria. It should be mentioned also that, although Mexico has the same kind of problems than other countries, research has shown they are smaller, which makes studies on protective and risk factors a priority for the future. There are still certain aspects of epidemiology which remain practically untouched in research. For instance, it is important to focus on rural areas, on migrant populations, and on native groups to overcome the existing backwardness. Another important topic in the prevention area is the work to do carried out with mental problems during childhood and adolescence. Longitudinal studies would mark the path to evaluate different types of factors: genetic, biologic, familiar, psychodyna-mic, social, and economic. It is also important to analyze the interaction among them to know its impact on etiology and on the development of psychopathology during life.

[Psychopathology across three family generations: an epidemiological study in Mexico City]. / Psicopatología en familiares de tres generaciones: un estudio epidemiológico en la Ciudad de México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the risk of psychiatric disorders across three family generations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The research design corresponds to a "family history study" and is based upon a household survey conducted in 1995, on a representative sample of Mexico City's adult population aged 18 - 65 years (n=1932). Briefly, a standardized assessment of adults' lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders was obtained using an amended version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, CIDI. In addition, all respondents provided information on their parents' psychiatric history of anxiety, affective disorders, and substance-use disorders.Also, respondents who had 4-16 year old children living in the same household were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire that included specific questions on their children's psychiatric symptoms (n=925 parents, corresponding to 1686 children and adolescents). Familial psychopathology across generations was defined as follows: a) history of psychiatric disorders only in grandparents; b) history of psychiatric disorders in one parent only (mother or father); and, c) history of psychiatric disorders history in grandparents and in parent. The risk of psychiatric morbidity was estimated via odds ratios obtained from logistic regression models with and without random-effects and using Generalized Estimation Equations with robust variance estimation. RESULTS: The risk for psychopathology in the offspring across generations was estimated to be two to three times higher when psychiatric disorders occurred among the parents. The risk of psychiatric disorders was estimated to be higher when comorbidity among different types of disorders was present. Conclusions. The results suggest that the risk for developing psychopathology across generations is at least moderate and relatively stable. Familial transmission of psychopathology across three generations seems to resemble a genetic mixed model.

Psicopatología en familiares de tres generaciones: un estudio epidemiológico en la Ciudad de México / Psychopathology across three family generations: an epidemiological study in Mexico City

OBJETIVO: Estimar el riesgo para desarrollar psicopatología entre padres e hijos a lo largo de tres generaciones. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizó el método del "estudio de la historia familiar". Para el estudio se utilizaron datos de una encuesta probabilística de hogares efectuada en 1995 en la Ciudad de México. Los probandos fueron adultos entre los 18 a 65 años de edad (n=1 932) a quienes se entrevistó utilizando la Entrevista Internacional Diagnóstica Compuesta. Además, se obtuvo información acerca de antecedentes psiquiátricos en sus padres empleando el método y los criterios diagnósticos de la historia familiar. Finalmente, en aquellos adultos con hijos de entre 4 a 16 años viviendo en el mismo hogar (n=925) se les aplicó un cuestionario para detectar la presencia de psicopatología en cada uno de sus hijos, obteniéndose información acerca de 1 686 niños y adolescentes. Para estimar el riesgo de morbilidad entre generaciones y la interacción entre éstas, se distinguió cuando sólo hubiera antecedentes en los abuelos, solamente en los padres y cuando estaban presentes en los abuelos y en los padres. La probabilidad de ser "caso" se obtuvo a partir de la razón de momios resultante de los análisis de regresión logística siguiendo tres diferentes modelos: el clásico, el con efectos aleatorios y el con ecuaciones de estimación generalizada con varianza robusta. RESULTADOS: La probabilidad de presentar psicopatología es entre dos a tres veces mayor cuando hay trastornos psiquiátricos en los padres. La probabilidad es mayor cuando existe comorbilidad entre diferentes tipos de trastornos. CONCLUSIONES: El riesgo para desarrollar psicopatología entre las generaciones es al menos moderado y relativamente estable. Los resultados sugieren que, en general, la transmisión de psicopatología entre las generaciones es acorde con la de un modelo genético mixto.