Vital Signs: Containment of Novel Multidrug-Resistant Organisms and Resistance Mechanisms - United States, 2006-2017.

BACKGROUND: Approaches to controlling emerging antibiotic resistance in health care settings have evolved over time. When resistance to broad-spectrum antimicrobials mediated by extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBLs) arose in the 1980s, targeted interventions to slow spread were not widely promoted. However, when Enterobacteriaceae with carbapenemases that confer resistance to carbapenem antibiotics emerged, directed control efforts were recommended. These distinct approaches could have resulted in differences in spread of these two pathogens. CDC evaluated these possible changes along with initial findings of an enhanced antibiotic resistance detection and control strategy that builds on interventions developed to control carbapenem resistance. METHODS: Infection data from the National Healthcare Safety Network from 2006-2015 were analyzed to calculate changes in the annual proportion of selected pathogens that were nonsusceptible to extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESBL phenotype) or resistant to carbapenems (carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae [CRE]). Testing results for CRE and carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CRPA) are also reported. RESULTS: The percentage of ESBL phenotype Enterobacteriaceae decreased by 2% per year (risk ratio [RR] = 0.98, p<0.001); by comparison, the CRE percentage decreased by 15% per year (RR = 0.85, p<0.01). From January to September 2017, carbapenemase testing was performed for 4,442 CRE and 1,334 CRPA isolates; 32% and 1.9%, respectively, were carbapenemase producers. In response, 1,489 screening tests were performed to identify asymptomatic carriers; 171 (11%) were positive. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of Enterobacteriaceae infections that were CRE remained lower and decreased more over time than the proportion that were ESBL phenotype. This difference might be explained by the more directed control efforts implemented to slow transmission of CRE than those applied for ESBL-producing strains. Increased detection and aggressive early response to emerging antibiotic resistance threats have the potential to slow further spread.

A research framework for reducing preventable patient harm.

Programs to reduce central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) have improved the safety of hospitalized patients. Efforts are underway to disseminate these successes broadly to reduce other types of hospital-acquired infectious and noninfectious preventable harms. Unfortunately, the ability to broadly measure and prevent other types of preventable harms, especially infectious harms, needs enhancement. Moreover, an overarching research framework for creating and integrating evidence will help expedite the development of national prevention programs. This article outlines a 5-phase translational (T) framework to develop robust research programs that reduce preventable harm, as follows: phase T0, discover opportunities and approaches to prevent adverse health care events; phase T1, use T0 discoveries to develop and test interventions on a small scale; phase T2, broaden and strengthen the evidence base for promising interventions to develop evidence-based guidelines; phase T3, translate guidelines into clinical practice; and phase T4, implement and evaluate T3 work on a national and international scale. Policy makers should use this framework to fill in the knowledge gaps, coordinate efforts among federal agencies, and prioritize research funding.

Prevention of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection among Asian/Pacific Islanders: a qualitative assessment.

BACKGROUND: Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) has been increasingly reported over the past decade, including in Asian/Pacific Islanders (A/PIs). METHODS: We conducted ethnographic interviews in O'ahu and Kaua'i, Hawai'i, with 10 Asian/Pacific Islanders identified as having a history of CA-MRSA infections. RESULTS: Most (7/10) thought skin infections were not a new problem in Hawai'i. Most (8/9) attempted to self-treat the infection prior to seeking medical care with a range of home remedies and store- bought solutions. Most respondents did not initially comprehend the severity of their infection and only sought medical treatment after concern from family, unbearable pain, and/or other symptoms of illness. CONCLUSION: Clinicians should be aware of the reportedly frequent use of home remedies by this population, as it may potentially contribute to interactions when treatments are combined. If clinicians and public health professionals do not address perceptions and misperceptions of how MRSA is acquired, it will be very difficult to prevent infection, and may also delay individuals from seeking treatment.

Antimicrobial resistance: international control strategies, with a focus on limited-resource settings.

Microorganisms resistant to multiple anti-infective agents have increased worldwide. These organisms threaten both optimal care of patients with infection as well as the viability of current healthcare systems. In addition, antimicrobials are valuable resources that enhance both prevention and treatment of infections. As resistance diminishes this resource, it is a societal goal to minimise resistance and therefore to reduce forces that produce resistance. This review considers strategies for minimising resistance that are needed at several different levels of responsibility, ranging from the patient care provider to international agencies. It then describes responses that might be appropriate according to the resources available for control, focusing on limited-resource settings. Antimicrobial resistance represents an international concern. Response to this problem demands concerted efforts from multiple sectors both in developed and developing countries, as well as the strengthening of multinational/international partnerships and regulations. Both medical and public health agencies should be in the forefront of these efforts.

Impact of different methods of feedback to clinicians after postprescription antimicrobial review based on the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention's 12 Steps to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance Among Hospitalized Adults.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate (1) the framework of the 12 Steps to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance Among Hospitalized Adults that is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance in Healthcare Settings, with regard to steps addressing antimicrobial use; and (2) methods of feedback to clinicians regarding antimicrobial use after postprescription review. DESIGN: Prospective intervention to identify and modify inappropriate antimicrobial therapy. SETTING: A 1,000-bed, tertiary care teaching hospital. PATIENTS: Inpatients in selected medicine and surgery units receiving broad-spectrum antimicrobials for 48-72 hours. INTERVENTIONS: We created a computer-based clinical-event detection system that automatically identified inpatients taking broad-spectrum and "reserve" antimicrobials for 48-72 hours. Although prior approval was required for initial administration of broad-spectrum and reserve antimicrobials, once approval was obtained, therapy with the antimicrobials could be continued indefinitely at the discretion of the treating clinician. Therapy that was ongoing at 48-72 hours was reviewed by an infectious diseases pharmacist or physician, and when indicated feedback was provided to clinicians to modify or discontinue therapy. Feedback was provided via a direct telephone call, a note on the front of the medical record, or text message sent to the clinician's pager. The acceptance rate of feedback was recorded and recommendations were categorized according to the 12 steps recommended by the CDC. RESULTS: Interventions were recommended for 334 (30%) of 1,104 courses of antimicrobial therapy reviewed. A total of 87% of interventions fit into one of the CDC's 12 steps of prevention: 39% into step 3 ("target the pathogen"), 1% into step 4 ("access experts"), 3% into steps 7 and 8 ("treat infection, not colonization or contamination"), 18% into step 9 ("say ;no' to vancomycin"), and 26% into step 10 ("stop treatment when no infection"). The rate of compliance with recommendations to improve antimicrobial use was 72%. No differences in compliance were seen with the different methods of feedback. CONCLUSIONS: Nearly one-third of antimicrobial courses did not follow the CDC's recommended 12 steps for prevention of antimicrobial resistance. Clinicians demonstrated high compliance with following suggestions made after postprescription review, suggesting that it is a useful approach to decreasing and improving antimicrobial use among inpatients.

Estimating health care-associated infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, 2002.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to provide a national estimate of the number of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) and deaths in United States hospitals. METHODS: No single source of nationally representative data on HAIs is currently available. The authors used a multi-step approach and three data sources. The main source of data was the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system, data from 1990-2002, conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey (for 2002) and the American Hospital Association Survey (for 2000) were used to supplement NNIS data. The percentage of patients with an HAI whose death was determined to be caused or associated with the HAI from NNIS data was used to estimate the number of deaths. RESULTS: In 2002, the estimated number of HAIs in U.S. hospitals, adjusted to include federal facilities, was approximately 1.7 million: 33,269 HAIs among newborns in high-risk nurseries, 19,059 among newborns in well-baby nurseries, 417,946 among adults and children in ICUs, and 1,266,851 among adults and children outside of ICUs. The estimated deaths associated with HAIs in U.S. hospitals were 98,987: of these, 35,967 were for pneumonia, 30,665 for bloodstream infections, 13,088 for urinary tract infections, 8,205 for surgical site infections, and 11,062 for infections of other sites. CONCLUSION: HAIs in hospitals are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States. The method described for estimating the number of HAIs makes the best use of existing data at the national level.

Hand hygiene practices after brief encounters with patients: an important opportunity for prevention.

OBJECTIVE: To identify characteristics of encounters between healthcare workers (HCWs) and patients that correlated with hand hygiene adherence among HCWs. DESIGN: Observational study. SETTING: Intensive care unit in a Veterans Affairs hospital. PARTICIPANTS: HCWs. RESULTS: There were 767 patient encounters observed (48.6% involved nurses, 20.6% involved physicians, and 30.8% involved other HCWs); 39.8% of encounters involved patients placed under contact precautions. HCW contact with either the patient or surfaces in the patient's environment occurred during all encounters; direct patient contact occurred during 439 encounters (57.4%), and contact with environmental surfaces occurred during 710 encounters (92.6%). The median duration of encounters was 2 minutes (range, <1 to 51 minutes); 33.6% of encounters lasted 1 minute or less, with no significant occupation-associated differences in the median duration of encounters. Adherence with hand hygiene practices was correlated with the duration of the encounter, with overall adherences of 30.0% after encounters of < or =1 minute, 43.4% after encounters of >1 to < or =2 minutes, 51.1% after encounters of >3 to < or =5 minutes, and 64.9% after encounters of >5 minutes (P<.001 by the chi (2) for trend). In multivariate analyses, longer encounter duration, contact precautions status, patient contact, and nursing occupation were independently associated with adherence to hand hygiene recommendations. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, adherence to hand hygiene practices was lowest after brief patient encounters (i.e., < 2 minutes). Brief encounters accounted for a substantial proportion of all observed encounters, and opportunities for hand contamination occurred during all brief encounters. Therefore, improving adherence after brief encounters may have an important overall impact on the transmission of healthcare-associated pathogens and may deserve special emphasis in the design of programs to promote adherence to hand hygiene practices.

Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis.

This report updates U.S. Public Health Service recommendations for the management of health-care personnel (HCP) who have occupational exposure to blood and other body fluids that might contain human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Although the principles of exposure management remain unchanged, recommended HIV postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) regimens have been changed. This report emphasizes adherence to HIV PEP when it is indicated for an exposure, expert consultation in management of exposures, follow-up of exposed workers to improve adherence to PEP, and monitoring for adverse events, including seroconversion. To ensure timely postexposure management and administration of HIV PEP, clinicians should consider occupational exposures as urgent medical concerns.

Guidance on public reporting of healthcare-associated infections: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.

Since 2002, 4 states have enacted legislation that requires health care organizations to publicly disclose health care-associated infection (HAI) rates. Similar legislative efforts are underway in several other states. Advocates of mandatory public reporting of HAIs believe that making such information publicly available will enable consumers to make more informed choices about their health care and improve overall health care quality by reducing HAIs. Further, they believe that patients have a right to know this information. However, others have expressed concern that the reliability of public reporting systems may be compromised by institutional variability in the definitions used for HAIs, or in the methods and resources used to identify HAIs. Presently, there is insufficient evidence on the merits and limitations of an HAI public reporting system. Therefore, the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) has not recommended for or against mandatory public reporting of HAI rates. However, HICPAC has developed this guidance document based on established principles for public health and HAI reporting systems. This document is intended to assist policymakers, program planners, consumer advocacy organizations, and others tasked with designing and implementing public reporting systems for HAIs. The document provides a framework for legislators, but does not provide model legislation. HICPAC recommends that persons who design and implement such systems 1) use established public health surveillance methods when designing and implementing mandatory HAI reporting systems; 2) create multidisciplinary advisory panels, including persons with expertise in the prevention and control of HAIs, to monitor the planning and oversight of HAI public reporting systems; 3) choose appropriate process and outcome measures based on facility type and phase in measures to allow time for facilities to adapt and to permit ongoing evaluation of data validity; and 4) provide regular and confidential feedback of performance data to healthcare providers. Specifically, HICPAC recommends that states establishing public reporting systems for HAIs select one or more of the following process or outcome measures as appropriate for hospitals or long-term care facilities in their jurisdictions: 1) central-line insertion practices; 2) surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis; 3) influenza vaccination coverage among patients and healthcare personnel; 4) central line-associated bloodstream infections; and 5) surgical site infections following selected operations. HICPAC will update these recommendations as more research and experience become available.

Assessing motivation for physicians to prevent antimicrobial resistance in hospitalized children using the Health Belief Model as a framework.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AR) is a threat to hospitalized children, and more information is needed to motivate physicians to adopt evidence-based practices such as those in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance. METHODS: The framework of the Health Belief Model (HBM) was used to assess personal perceptions and cues to action related to the prevention of AR in 3 national focus groups in August 2003. RESULTS: Twenty-five physicians who treat hospitalized children participated; all reported that they had cared for a patient with an antimicrobial-resistant organism. Physicians perceived that AR was more of a problem nationally (92%) than in their institution (76%) or practice (60%) and reported that issues such as nursing shortage, cost of health care, and lack of specialty services presented more of a challenge to the care of hospitalized children than AR. Reported preferences of cues to action included journal articles (80%), infectious disease experts (76%), and colleagues (52%). CONCLUSIONS: The HBM provides insight into physicians' perceptions about AR and preferred cues to action, which yield valuable information concerning the modes, methods, and messengers to intervene on problems such as antimicrobial resistance in hospitalized children.

Estimate of the annual number of percutaneous injuries among hospital-based healthcare workers in the United States, 1997-1998.

OBJECTIVE: To construct a single estimate of the number of percutaneous injuries sustained annually by healthcare workers (HCWs) in the United States. DESIGN: Statistical analysis. METHODS: We combined data collected in 1997 and 1998 at 15 National Surveillance System for Health Care Workers (NaSH) hospitals and 45 Exposure Prevention Information Network (EPINet) hospitals. The combined data, taken as a sample of all U.S. hospitals, were adjusted for underreporting. The estimate of the number of percutaneous injuries nationwide was obtained by weighting the number of percutaneous injuries at each hospital by the number of admissions in all U.S. hospitals relative to the number of admissions at that hospital. RESULTS: The estimated number of percutaneous injuries sustained annually by hospital-based HCWs was 384,325 (95% confidence interval, 311,091 to 463,922). The number of percutaneous injuries sustained by HCWs outside of the hospital setting was not estimated. CONCLUSIONS: Although our estimate is smaller than some previously published estimates of percutaneous injuries among HCWs, its magnitude remains a concern and emphasizes the urgent need to implement prevention strategies. In addition, improved surveillance could be used to monitor injury trends in all healthcare settings and evaluate the impact of prevention interventions.

Clinicians' perceptions of the problem of antimicrobial resistance in health care facilities.

BACKGROUND: Many clinicians do not comply with guidelines regarding antimicrobial resistance (AR). In response, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed a national Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance in Healthcare Settings that presents 4 strategies and 12 evidence-based steps. METHODS: To assess clinicians' perceptions of AR, barriers and facilitators to preventing AR, and how best to reach clinicians, a questionnaire and 4 focus groups were conducted after presentation of the Campaign at 4 Pittsburgh Regional Healthcare Initiative hospitals. RESULTS: One hundred seventeen clinicians completed the questionnaire; 28 participated in the focus groups. Clinicians were significantly more likely to perceive that AR was a problem nationally than in their own institution (95% vs 77%; P<.001) or practice (95% vs 65%; P =.002), consistent with focus group results (93% nationally vs 46% institution or practice). The 3 Campaign steps with the most barriers to implementation were "Treat infection, not colonization" (35%), "Stop treatment when infection is cured or unlikely" (35%), and "Practice antimicrobial control" (33%). Clinicians in the focus groups cited the additional barriers of the health care culture, lack of knowledge, and the nursing shortage; facilitators included education, information technology, and consults. Computer programs, posters, and local data were suggested for reaching clinicians about AR. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians perceive AR to be a complex national problem but less relevant to their own institution or practice. Providing clinicians with information and steps for preventing AR, as in the Campaign, may affect their perceptions of the problem and motivate them to take actions to ensure patient safety.

Occupational exposures to human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus: risk, prevention, and management.

Current data indicate that the risk for transmitting bloodborne pathogens in dental health care settings is low. Pre-exposure hepatitis B vaccination and the use of standard precautions to prevent exposure to blood are the most effective strategies for preventing DHCP from occupational infection with HIV, HBV or HCV. Each dental health care facility should develop a comprehensive written program for preventing and managing occupational exposures to blood that: (1) describes the types of blood exposures that may place DHCP at risk for infection; (2) outlines procedures for promptly reporting and evaluating such exposures; and (3) identifies a health care professional who is qualified to provide counseling and perform all medical evaluations and procedures in accordance with the most current USPHS recommendations. Finally, resources should be available that permit rapid access to clinical care, testing, counseling, and PEP for exposed DHCP and the testing and counseling of source patients.

Antiretroviral drug resistance in human immunodeficiency virus-infected source patients for occupational exposures to healthcare workers.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of HIV antiretroviral resistance among source patients for occupational HIV exposures. DESIGN: Blood and data (eg, stage of HIV, previous antiretroviral drug therapy, and HIV RNA viral load) were collected from HIV-infected patients who were source patients for occupational exposures. SETTING: Seven tertiary-care medical centers in five U.S. cities (San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; Boston, Massachusetts; Albany, New York; and New York, New York [three sites]) during 1998 to 1999. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-four HIV-infected patients who were source patients for occupational exposures. RESULTS: Virus from 50 patients was sequenced; virus from 14 patients with an undetectable (ie, < 400 RNA copies/mL) viral load could not be sequenced. Overall, 19 (38%) of the 50 patients had primary genotypic mutations associated with resistance to reverse transcriptase or protease inhibitors. Eighteen of the 19 viruses with primary mutations and 13 wild type viruses were phenotyped by recombinant assays; 19 had phenotypic resistance to at least one antiretroviral agent. Of the 50 source patients studied, 26 had taken antiretroviral agents in the 3 months before the occupational exposure incident. Sixteen (62%) of the 26 drug-treated patients had virus that was phenotypically resistant to at least one drug. Four (17%) of 23 untreated patients had phenotypically resistant virus. No episodes of HIV transmission were observed among the exposed HCWs. CONCLUSIONS: There was a high prevalence of drug-resistant HIV among source patients for occupational HIV exposures. Healthcare providers should use the drug treatment information of source patients when making decisions about post-exposure prophylaxis.

Transmission of HIV and hepatitis C virus from a nursing home patient to a health care worker.

BACKGROUND: We report a case of simultaneous HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) transmission from a nursing home patient to a health care worker (HCW) whose HIV and HCV infections were diagnosed during routine blood donor screening. METHODS: Detailed information about the HCW, possible occupational and nonoccupational blood and body fluid exposures, and possible source patient was collected. Blood samples were drawn from the HCW and patient, and HIV and HCV laboratory testing was performed at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. RESULTS: The HCW, who worked as a nursing home aide, had no nonoccupational risk factors for HIV or HCV infection but provided care for 1 HIV-infected patient with dementia and urinary and fecal incontinence. The HCW had numerous exposures to the patient's emesis, feces, and urine to unprotected chapped and abraded hands. HCW and patient blood samples were positive for anti-HCV by enzyme immunoassay and recombinant immunoblot assay testing. The HCW's and patient's HCV were genotyped as 1a, and their HIV-1 was genotyped as subtype B. HIV and HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequence analysis showed that the HCW's and patient's viruses were very closely related. CONCLUSIONS: HIV and HCV transmission from the patient to the HCW appears to have occurred through nonintact skin exposure. Bloodborne pathogen transmission may have been prevented in this situation by consistent, unfailing use of barrier precautions.

A comprehensive approach to percutaneous injury prevention during phlebotomy: results of a multicenter study, 1993-1995.

OBJECTIVE: To examine a comprehensive approach for preventing percutaneous injuries associated with phlebotomy procedures. DESIGN AND SETTING: From 1993 through 1995, personnel at 10 university-affiliated hospitals enhanced surveillance and assessed underreporting of percutaneous injuries; selected, implemented, and evaluated the efficacy of phlebotomy devices with safety features (ie, engineered sharps injury prevention devices [ESIPDs]); and assessed healthcare worker satisfaction with ESIPDs. Investigators also evaluated the preventability of a subset of percutaneous injuries and conducted an audit of sharps disposal containers to quantify activation rates for devices with safety features. RESULTS: The three selected phlebotomy devices with safety features reduced percutaneous injury rates compared with conventional devices. Activation rates varied according to ease of use, healthcare worker preference for ESIPDs, perceived "patient adverse events," and device-specific training. CONCLUSIONS: Device-specific features and healthcare worker training and involvement in the selection of ESIPDs affect the activation rates for ESIPDs and therefore their efficacy. The implementation of ESIPDs is a useful measure in a comprehensive program to reduce percutaneous injuries associated with phlebotomy procedures.