Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5 Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus Infection in Birds and Mammals.

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are highly contagious respiratory viruses of birds, leading to significant morbidity and mortality globally and causing substantial economic losses to the poultry industry and agriculture. Since their first isolation in 2013-2014, the Asian-origin H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAI) of clade 2.3.4.4b have undergone unprecedented evolution and reassortment of internal gene segments. In just a few years, it supplanted other AIV clades, and now it is widespread in the wild migratory waterfowl, spreading to Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Wild waterfowl, the natural reservoir of LPAIVs and generally more resistant to the disease, also manifested high morbidity and mortality with HPAIV clade 2.3.4.4b. This clade also caused overt clinical signs and mass mortality in a variety of avian and mammalian species never reported before, such as raptors, seabirds, sealions, foxes, and others. Most notably, the recent outbreaks in dairy cattle were associated with the emergence of a few critical mutations related to mammalian adaptation, raising concerns about the possibility of jumping species and acquisition of sustained human-to-human transmission. The main clinical signs and anatomopathological findings associated with clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in birds and non-human mammals are hereby summarized.

Amino acid 138 in the HA of a H3N2 subtype influenza A virus increases affinity for the lower respiratory tract and alveolar macrophages in pigs.

Influenza A virus (FLUAV) infects a wide range of hosts and human-to-swine spillover events are frequently reported. However, only a few of these human viruses have become established in pigs and the host barriers and molecular mechanisms driving adaptation to the swine host remain poorly understood. We previously found that infection of pigs with a 2:6 reassortant virus (hVIC/11) containing the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) gene segments from the human strain A/Victoria/361/2011 (H3N2) and internal gene segments of an endemic swine strain (sOH/04) resulted in a fixed amino acid substitution in the HA (A138S, mature H3 HA numbering). In silico analysis revealed that S138 became predominant among swine H3N2 virus sequences deposited in public databases, while 138A predominates in human isolates. To understand the role of the HA A138S substitution in the adaptation of a human-origin FLUAV HA to swine, we infected pigs with the hVIC/11A138S mutant and analyzed pathogenesis and transmission compared to hVIC/11 and sOH/04. Our results showed that the hVIC/11A138S virus had an intermediary pathogenesis between hVIC/11 and sOH/04. The hVIC/11A138S infected the upper respiratory tract, right caudal, and both cranial lobes while hVIC/11 was only detected in nose and trachea samples. Viruses induced a distinct expression pattern of various pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-8, TNF-α, and IFN-ß. Flow cytometric analysis of lung samples revealed a significant reduction of porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) in hVIC/11A138S-infected pigs compared to hVIC/11 while a MHCIIlowCD163neg population was increased. The hVIC/11A138S showed a higher affinity for PAMs than hVIC/11, noted as an increase of infected PAMs in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and showed no differences in the percentage of HA-positive PAMs compared to sOH/04. This increased infection of PAMs led to an increase of granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) stimulation but a reduced expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) in the sOH/04-infected group. Analysis using the PAM cell line 3D4/21 revealed that the A138S substitution improved replication and apoptosis induction in this cell type compared to hVIC/11 but at lower levels than sOH/04. Overall, our study indicates that adaptation of human viruses to the swine host involves an increased affinity for the lower respiratory tract and alveolar macrophages.

FLUAV RAM-IGIP: A modified live influenza virus vaccine that enhances humoral and mucosal responses against influenza.

Current influenza A vaccines fall short, leaving both humans and animals vulnerable. To address this issue, we have developed attenuated modified live virus (MLV) vaccines against influenza using genome rearrangement techniques targeting the internal gene segments of FLUAV. The rearranged M2 (RAM) strategy involves cloning the M2 ORF downstream of the PB1 ORF in segment 2 and incorporating multiple early stop codons within the M2 ORF in segment 7. Additionally, the IgA-inducing protein (IGIP) coding region was inserted into the HA segment to further attenuate the virus and enhance protective mucosal responses. RAM-IGIP viruses exhibit similar growth rates to wild type (WT) viruses in vitro and remain stable during multiple passages in cells and embryonated eggs. The safety, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of the RAM-IGIP MLV vaccine against the prototypical 2009 pandemic H1N1 strain A/California/04/2009 (H1N1) (Ca/04) were evaluated in Balb/c mice and compared to a prototypic cold-adapted live attenuated virus vaccine. The results demonstrate that the RAM-IGIP virus exhibits attenuated virulence in vivo. Mice vaccinated with RAM-IGIP and subsequently challenged with an aggressive lethal dose of the Ca/04 strain exhibited complete protection. Analysis of the humoral immune response revealed that the inclusion of IGIP enhanced the production of neutralizing antibodies and augmented the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity response. Similarly, the RAM-IGIP potentiated the mucosal immune response against various FLUAV subtypes. Moreover, increased antibodies against NP and NA responses were observed. These findings support the development of MLVs utilizing genome rearrangement strategies in conjunction with the incorporation of immunomodulators. IMPORTANCE: Current influenza vaccines offer suboptimal protection, leaving both humans and animals vulnerable. Our novel attenuated MLV vaccine, built by rearranging FLUAV genome segments and incorporating the IgA-inducing protein, shows promising results. This RAM-IGIP vaccine exhibits safe attenuation, robust immune responses, and complete protection against lethal viral challenge in mice. Its ability to stimulate broad-spectrum humoral and mucosal immunity against diverse FLUAV subtypes makes it a highly promising candidate for improved influenza vaccines.

Efficacy of a novel cervical dislocation tool for humane euthanasia of broilers and broiler breeders.

Euthanasia is an essential task performed daily on commercial poultry farms around the world to safeguard animal welfare. Manual cervical dislocation (MCD) is the most common euthanasia method but can be challenging to perform given the physical strength required to implement this technique. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a novel cervical dislocation tool (NCDT) compared to MCD. A total of 60 Ross 308 chickens (6-wk old) and 60 Ross 706 parent stock breeders (21-wk old) were enrolled in the study. Birds were sexed, blocked by body weight, and allocated to 1 of 2 treatments: 1) MCD and 2) NCDT. Immediately following euthanasia application, insensibility, and death were monitored. Once death was confirmed, gross evaluation, radiograph, and macroscopic/microscopic scoring were performed. Both euthanasia methods were 100% effective in achieving insensibility followed by cardiac and respiratory arrest in both age groups. In 6-wk-old broilers, there were no differences in insensibility measures or location and severity of the dislocation site by treatment. The NCDT treatment group showed an increased frequency of fractures located at the tooth-like process that projects from the cranial aspect of the centrum of the axis (dens) but had no impact on bird insensibility. For parent stock, differences in nictitating membrane reflex (NMR) and laceration scores for birds euthanized with NCDT were found and likely associated with additional force exerted with the tool. The NCDT is a promising replacement for MCD and future work should address the development of free and accessible training materials for on-farm use.

Antigenic mapping of the hemagglutinin of the H9 subtype influenza A viruses using sera from Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica).

IMPORTANCE: Determining the relevant amino acids involved in antigenic drift on the surface protein hemagglutinin (HA) is critical to understand influenza virus evolution and efficient assessment of vaccine strains relative to current circulating strains. We used antigenic cartography to generate an antigenic map of the H9 hemagglutinin (HA) using sera produced in one of the most relevant minor poultry species, Japanese quail. Key antigenic positions were identified and tested to confirm their impact on the antigenic profile. This work provides a better understanding of the antigenic diversity of the H9 HA as it relates to reactivity to quail sera and will facilitate a rational approach for selecting more efficacious vaccines against poultry-origin H9 influenza viruses in minor poultry species.

South American H4N2 influenza A virus improved replication in chicken trachea after low number of passages.

Introduction of influenza A viruses (FLUAV) into poultry from waterfowl is frequent, producing economic burden and increasing the probability of human infections. We have previously described the presence of FLUAV in wild birds in Argentina with unique evolutionary trajectories belonging to a South American lineage different from the North American and Eurasian lineages. Adaptability of this South American lineage FLUAV to poultry species is still poorly understood. In the present report, we evaluated the capacity of an H4N2 FLUAV from the South American lineage to adapt to chickens after low number of passages. We found that five mutations were acquired after five passages in 3-days-old chickens. These mutations produced a virus with better infectivity in ex vivo trachea explants but overall lower infection in lung explants. Infection of 3-week-old chickens persisted for a longer period and was detected in more tissues than the parental virus, suggesting adaptation of the H4N2 influenza A virus to chicken.

Influenza A virus reassortment in mammals gives rise to genetically distinct within-host subpopulations.

Influenza A virus (IAV) genetic exchange through reassortment has the potential to accelerate viral evolution and has played a critical role in the generation of multiple pandemic strains. For reassortment to occur, distinct viruses must co-infect the same cell. The spatio-temporal dynamics of viral dissemination within an infected host therefore define opportunity for reassortment. Here, we used wild type and synonymously barcoded variant viruses of a pandemic H1N1 strain to examine the within-host viral dynamics that govern reassortment in guinea pigs, ferrets and swine. The first two species are well-established models of human influenza, while swine are a natural host and a frequent conduit for cross-species transmission and reassortment. Our results show reassortment to be pervasive in all three hosts but less frequent in swine than in ferrets and guinea pigs. In ferrets, tissue-specific differences in the opportunity for reassortment are also evident, with more reassortants detected in the nasal tract than the lower respiratory tract. While temporal trends in viral diversity are limited, spatial patterns are clear, with heterogeneity in the viral genotypes detected at distinct anatomical sites revealing extensive compartmentalization of reassortment and replication. Our data indicate that the dynamics of viral replication in mammals allow diversification through reassortment but that the spatial compartmentalization of variants likely shapes their evolution and onward transmission.

Pathobiology and dysbiosis of the respiratory and intestinal microbiota in 14 months old Golden Syrian hamsters infected with SARS-CoV-2.

The pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS2) affected the geriatric population. Among research models, Golden Syrian hamsters (GSH) are one of the most representative to study SARS2 pathogenesis and host responses. However, animal studies that recapitulate the effects of SARS2 in the human geriatric population are lacking. To address this gap, we inoculated 14 months old GSH with a prototypic ancestral strain of SARS2 and studied the effects on virus pathogenesis, virus shedding, and respiratory and gastrointestinal microbiome changes. SARS2 infection led to high vRNA loads in the nasal turbinates (NT), lungs, and trachea as well as higher pulmonary lesions scores later in infection. Dysbiosis throughout SARS2 disease progression was observed in the pulmonary microbial dynamics with the enrichment of opportunistic pathogens (Haemophilus, Fusobacterium, Streptococcus, Campylobacter, and Johnsonella) and microbes associated with inflammation (Prevotella). Changes in the gut microbial community also reflected an increase in multiple genera previously associated with intestinal inflammation and disease (Helicobacter, Mucispirillum, Streptococcus, unclassified Erysipelotrichaceae, and Spirochaetaceae). Influenza A virus (FLUAV) pre-exposure resulted in slightly more pronounced pathology in the NT and lungs early on (3 dpc), and more notable changes in lungs compared to the gut microbiome dynamics. Similarities among aged GSH and the microbiome in critically ill COVID-19 patients, particularly in the lower respiratory tract, suggest that GSHs are a representative model to investigate microbial changes during SARS2 infection. The relationship between the residential microbiome and other confounding factors, such as SARS2 infection, in a widely used animal model, contributes to a better understanding of the complexities associated with the host responses during viral infections.

Infectious laryngotracheitis of chickens: Pathologic and immunohistochemistry findings.

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an important upper respiratory disease of chickens. Gross and histologic lesions of ILT in chickens are compared to immunohistochemistry to evaluate the diagnostic test sensitivity. A total of 31 separate ILT-confirmed necropsy submissions (12 commercial meat-type flocks, 13 egg-type producers, and 6 backyard flocks) were arbitrarily selected. Each submission ranged from 1 to 18 birds, for a total of 246 chickens. Cases with available formalin-fixed tissues were selected to include a range of bird production types, ages, clinical histories, and severity of macroscopic and histologic lesions. Macroscopic findings in the respiratory tract varied from increased mucus (55.6%) to fibrinonecrotic exudate (20.3%) and hemorrhages in the larynx and trachea (13.0%). Syncytia with intranuclear inclusion bodies were present in the respiratory tract epithelium with or without hemorrhages. Sections of conjunctiva, sinus, larynx, trachea, lung, and air sac were analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) to detect gallid alphaherpesvirus 1 (GaHV-1) antigen. Positive immunolabeling was detected in the cytoplasm and nuclei of syncytia and epithelial cells in 18/22 conjunctivae (82%), 12/13 sinuses (92%), 18/22 larynxes (82%), 23/25 tracheas (92%), 10/21 lungs (57%), and 3/8 air sacs (37%). Of the 34 tissues with no visible syncytia or inclusion bodies, 8 were positive by IHC. In conclusion, IHC was useful to study the viral antigen tissue distribution and support the diagnosis of ILT when the histopathologic interpretation was doubtful.

Rational design of a deuterium-containing M2-S31N channel blocker UAWJ280 with in vivo antiviral efficacy against both oseltamivir sensitive and -resistant influenza A viruses.

Seasonal influenza A virus (IAV) infections are among the most important global health problems. FDA-approved antiviral therapies against IAV include neuraminidase inhibitors, M2 inhibitors, and polymerase inhibitor baloxavir. Resistance against adamantanes (amantadine and rimantadine) is widespread as virtually all IAV strains currently circulating in the human population are resistant to adamantanes through the acquisition of the S31N mutation. The neuraminidase inhibitor-resistant strains also contain the M2-S31N mutant, suggesting M2-S31N is a high-profile antiviral drug target. Here we report the development of a novel deuterium-containing M2-S31N inhibitor UAWJ280. UAWJ280 had broad-spectrum antiviral activity against both oseltamivir sensitive and -resistant influenza A strains and had a synergistic antiviral effect in combination with oseltamivir in cell culture. In vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) studies demonstrated that UAWJ280 had favourable PK properties. The in vivo mouse model study showed that UAWJ280 was effective alone or in combination with oseltamivir in improving clinical signs and survival after lethal challenge with an oseltamivir sensitive IAV H1N1 strain. Furthermore, UAWJ280 was also able to ameliorate clinical signs and increase survival when mice were challenged with an oseltamivir-resistant IAV H1N1 strain. In conclusion, we show for the first time that the M2-S31N channel blocker UAWJ280 has in vivo antiviral efficacy in mice that are infected with either oseltamivir sensitive or -resistant IAVs, and it has a synergistic antiviral effect with oseltamivir.

Mild and Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection Induces Respiratory and Intestinal Microbiome Changes in the K18-hACE2 Transgenic Mouse Model.

Transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in millions of deaths and declining economies around the world. K18-hACE2 mice develop disease resembling severe SARS-CoV-2 infection in a virus dose-dependent manner. The relationship between SARS-CoV-2 and the intestinal or respiratory microbiome is not fully understood. In this context, we characterized the cecal and lung microbiomes of SARS-CoV-2-challenged K18-hACE2 transgenic mice in the presence or absence of treatment with the Mpro inhibitor GC-376. Cecum microbiome showed decreased Shannon and inverse (Inv) Simpson diversity indexes correlating with SARS-CoV-2 infection dosage and a difference of Bray-Curtis dissimilarity distances among control and infected mice. Bacterial phyla such as Firmicutes, particularly, Lachnospiraceae and Oscillospiraceae, were significantly less abundant, while Verrucomicrobia, particularly, the family Akkermansiaceae, were increasingly more prevalent during peak infection in mice challenged with a high virus dose. In contrast to the cecal microbiome, the lung microbiome showed similar microbial diversity among the control, low-, and high-dose challenge virus groups, independent of antiviral treatment. Bacterial phyla in the lungs such as Bacteroidetes decreased, while Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were significantly enriched in mice challenged with a high dose of SARS-CoV-2. In summary, we identified changes in the cecal and lung microbiomes of K18-hACE2 mice with severe clinical signs of SARS-CoV-2 infection. IMPORTANCE The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in millions of deaths. The host's respiratory and intestinal microbiome can affect directly or indirectly the immune system during viral infections. We characterized the cecal and lung microbiomes in a relevant mouse model challenged with a low or high dose of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the presence or absence of an antiviral Mpro inhibitor, GC-376. Decreased microbial diversity and taxonomic abundances of the phyla Firmicutes, particularly, Lachnospiraceae, correlating with infection dosage were observed in the cecum. In addition, microbes within the family Akkermansiaceae were increasingly more prevalent during peak infection, which is observed in other viral infections. The lung microbiome showed similar microbial diversity to that of the control, independent of antiviral treatment. Decreased Bacteroidetes and increased Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were observed in the lungs in a virus dose-dependent manner. These studies add to a better understanding of the complexities associated with the intestinal microbiome during respiratory infections.

Development of a Novel Live Attenuated Influenza A Virus Vaccine Encoding the IgA-Inducing Protein.

Live attenuated influenza virus (LAIV) vaccines elicit a combination of systemic and mucosal immunity by mimicking a natural infection. To further enhance protective mucosal responses, we incorporated the gene encoding the IgA-inducing protein (IGIP) into the LAIV genomes of the cold-adapted A/Leningrad/134/17/57 (H2N2) strain (caLen) and the experimental attenuated backbone A/turkey/Ohio/313053/04 (H3N2) (OH/04att). Incorporation of IGIP into the caLen background led to a virus that grew poorly in prototypical substrates. In contrast, IGIP in the OH/04att background (IGIP-H1att) virus grew to titers comparable to the isogenic backbone H1att (H1N1) without IGIP. IGIP-H1att- and H1caLen-vaccinated mice were protected against lethal challenge with a homologous virus. The IGIP-H1att vaccine generated robust serum HAI responses in naïve mice against the homologous virus, equal or better than those obtained with the H1caLen vaccine. Analyses of IgG and IgA responses using a protein microarray revealed qualitative differences in humoral and mucosal responses between vaccine groups. Overall, serum and bronchoalveolar lavage samples from the IGIP-H1att group showed trends towards increased stimulation of IgG and IgA responses compared to H1caLen samples. In summary, the introduction of genes encoding immunomodulatory functions into a candidate LAIV can serve as natural adjuvants to improve overall vaccine safety and efficacy.

Efficacy of GC-376 against SARS-CoV-2 virus infection in the K18 hACE2 transgenic mouse model.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the defining global health emergency of this century. GC-376 is a Mpro inhibitor with antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Using the K18-hACE2 mouse model, the in vivo antiviral efficacy of GC-376 against SARS-CoV-2 was evaluated. GC-376 treatment was not toxic in K18-hACE2 mice. Overall outcome of clinical symptoms and survival upon SARS-CoV-2 challenge were not improved in mice treated with GC-376 compared to controls. The treatment with GC-376 slightly improved survival from 0 to 20% in mice challenged with a high virus dose at 105 TCID50/mouse. Most notably, GC-376 treatment led to milder tissue lesions, reduced viral loads, fewer presence of viral antigen, and reduced inflammation in comparison to vehicle-treated controls in mice challenged with a low virus dose at 103 TCID50/mouse. This was particularly the case in the brain where a 5-log reduction in viral titers was observed in GC-376 treated mice compared to vehicle controls. This study supports the notion that GC-376 represents a promising lead candidate for further development to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection and that the K18-hACE2 mouse model is suitable to study antiviral therapies against SARS-CoV-2.

Efficacy of GC-376 against SARS-CoV-2 virus infection in the K18 hACE2 transgenic mouse model.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the defining global health emergency of this century. GC-376 is a M pro inhibitor with antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro . Using the K18-hACE2 mouse model, the in vivo antiviral efficacy of GC-376 against SARS-CoV-2 was evaluated. GC-376 treatment was not toxic in K18-hACE2 mice and produced milder tissue lesions, reduced viral loads, fewer presence of viral antigen, and reduced inflammation in comparison to vehicle-treated controls, most notably in the brain in mice challenged with a low virus dose. Although GC-376 was not sufficient to improve neither clinical symptoms nor survival, it did show a positive effect against SARS-CoV-2 in vivo . This study supports the notion that the K18-hACE2 mouse model is suitable to study antiviral therapies against SARS-CoV-2, and GC-376 represents a promising lead candidate for further development to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Collective interactions augment influenza A virus replication in a host-dependent manner.

Infection with a single influenza A virus (IAV) is only rarely sufficient to initiate productive infection. Instead, multiple viral genomes are often required in a given cell. Here, we show that the reliance of IAV on multiple infection can form an important species barrier. Namely, we find that avian H9N2 viruses representative of those circulating widely at the poultry-human interface exhibit acute dependence on collective interactions in mammalian systems. This need for multiple infection is greatly reduced in the natural host. Quantification of incomplete viral genomes showed that their complementation accounts for the moderate reliance on multiple infection seen in avian cells but not the added reliance seen in mammalian cells. An additional form of virus-virus interaction is needed in mammals. We find that the PA gene segment is a major driver of this phenotype and that both viral replication and transcription are affected. These data indicate that multiple distinct mechanisms underlie the reliance of IAV on multiple infection and underscore the importance of virus-virus interactions in IAV infection, evolution and emergence.

H9 Influenza Viruses: An Emerging Challenge.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) of the H9 subtype are enzootic in Asia, the Middle East, and parts of North and Central Africa, where they cause significant economic losses to the poultry industry. Of note, some strains of H9N2 viruses have been linked to zoonotic episodes of mild respiratory diseases. Because of the threat posed by H9N2 viruses to poultry and human health, these viruses are considered of pandemic concern by the World Health Organization (WHO). H9N2 IAVs continue to diversify into multiple antigenically and phylogenetically distinct lineages that can further promote the emergence of strains with pandemic potential. Somewhat neglected compared with the H5 and H7 subtypes, there are numerous indicators that H9N2 viruses could be involved directly or indirectly in the emergence of the next influenza pandemic. The goal of this work is to discuss the state of knowledge on H9N2 IAVs and to provide an update on the contemporary global situation.

The Nasal Gland in Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo): Anatomy, Histology, and Ultrastructure.

This study provides a detailed description of the major morphoanatomic and ultrastructural features of the nasal gland in turkeys. In this avian species, nasal or salt glands are bilateral, pale pink, elongated to spindle-shaped, serous, tubuloalveolar structures, with a mean length ranging from 0.64 ± 0.15 cm in poults of 4 days of age to 2.15 ± 0.17 cm at 22 weeks. Instead of having a supraorbital location as commonly seen in waterfowl and other avian species, these glands run underneath the lacrimal, frontal, and nasal bones in turkeys. The reference point for sample collection for histologic examination is just before the rostral edge of the eyelid. Each gland adheres to the surrounding bone through a thick capsule of dense connective tissue merging with the skull periosteum. Histologically, the salt gland consists of secretory tubuloalveolar structures, lined by cuboidal epithelial cells with a central canaliculus and ducts. There are small and large ducts lined by a bilayered epithelium consisting of large apical columnar secretory cells occasionally admixed with rare cuboidal cells. These cells are periodic acid Schiff negative and slightly Alcian blue positive. Both alveolar and secretory ductal cells contain slightly electrondense granular vesicles, highly folded lateral surfaces, and large numbers of mitochondria, characteristic of ion-transporting epithelia. This study provides valuable information for the accurate identification and localization of the nasal gland during necropsy, as well as its correct histologic interpretation, ultimately improving our understanding of the role of this gland in the pathophysiology of specific diseases in turkeys.

La glándula nasal en pavos (Meleagris gallopavo): Anatomía, histología y ultraestructura Este estudio proporciona una descripción detallada de las principales características morfo-anatómicas y ultraestructurales de la glándula nasal en pavos. En esta especie aviar, las glándulas nasales o glándulas salinas son estructuras bilaterales, tubuloalveolares de color rosa pálido, alargadas y serosas, con una longitud media que varía de 0.64 ± 0.15 centímetros en los pavipollos de 4 días de edad hasta 2.15 ± 0.17 centímetros en aves a las 22 semanas. En lugar de tener una ubicación supraorbital como se ve comúnmente en las aves acuáticas y otras especies de aves, estas glándulas corren por debajo de los huesos lagrimales, frontales y nasales en los pavos. El punto de referencia para la recolección de muestras para el examen histológico es justo antes del borde rostral del párpado. Cada glándula se adhiere al hueso circundante a través de una gruesa cápsula de tejido conectivo denso que se fusiona con el periostio del cráneo. Histológicamente, la glándula salina consiste en estructuras tubulo-alveolares secretoras, revestidas por células epiteliales cuboidales con un canalículo central y conductos. Hay conductos pequeños y grandes revestidos por un epitelio de dos capas que consiste en grandes células secretoras columnares apicales ocasionalmente mezcladas con escasas células cuboidales. Estas células son ácido periódico de Schiff negativas y ligeramente positivas para el azul de alcián. Las células ductales alveolares y secretoras contienen vesículas granulares ligeramente electrondensas, superficies laterales altamente plegadas y grandes cantidades de mitocondrias, características de los epitelios transportadores de iones. Este estudio proporciona información valiosa para la identificación y localización exacta de la glándula nasal durante la necropsia, así como su correcta interpretación histológica, mejorando en última instancia nuestra comprensión del papel de esta glándula en la fisiopatología de enfermedades específicas en pavos.

Maternally-Derived Antibodies Protect against Challenge with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus of the H7N3 Subtype.

Vaccination of hens against influenza leads to the transfer of protective maternally-derived antibodies (MDA) to hatchlings. However, little is known about the transfer of H7N3 vaccine-induced MDA. Here, we evaluated transfer, duration, and protective effect of MDA in chickens against H7N3 HPAIV. To generate chickens with MDA (MDA (+)), 15-week-old White Leghorn hens were vaccinated and boosted twice with an inactivated H7N3 low pathogenic avian influenza virus vaccine, adjuvanted with Montanide ISA 71 VG. One week after the final boost, eggs were hatched. Eggs from non-vaccinated hens were hatched for chickens without MDA (MDA (-)). Both MDA (+) and MDA (-) hatchlings were monitored weekly for antibody levels. Anti-HA MDA were detected by hemagglutination inhibition assay mostly until day 7 post-hatch. However, anti-nucleoprotein MDA were still detected three weeks post-hatch. Three weeks post-hatch, chickens were challenged with 106 EID50/bird of Mexican-origin H7N3 HPAIV. Interestingly, while 0% of the MDA (-) chickens survived the challenge, 95% of the MDA (+) chickens survived. Furthermore, virus shedding was significantly reduced by day 5 post-challenge in the MDA (+) group. In conclusion, MDA confers partial protection against mortality upon challenge with H7N3 HPAIV, as far as three weeks post-hatch, even in the absence of detectable anti-HA antibodies, and reduce virus shedding after challenge.

Flexibility In Vitro of Amino Acid 226 in the Receptor-Binding Site of an H9 Subtype Influenza A Virus and Its Effect In Vivo on Virus Replication, Tropism, and Transmission.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) remain a significant public health threat, causing more than 300,000 hospitalizations in the United States during the 2015-2016 season alone. While only a few IAVs of avian origin have been associated with human infections, the ability of these viruses to cause zoonotic infections further increases the public health risk of influenza. Of these, H9N2 viruses in Asia are of particular importance as they have contributed internal gene segments to other emerging zoonotic IAVs. Notably, recent H9N2 viruses have acquired molecular markers that allow for a transition from avian-like to human-like terminal sialic acid (SA) receptor recognition via a single amino acid change at position 226 (H3 numbering), from glutamine (Q226) to leucine (L226), within the hemagglutinin (HA) receptor-binding site (RBS). We sought to determine the plasticity of amino acid 226 and the biological effects of alternative amino acids on variant viruses. We created a library of viruses with the potential of having any of the 20 amino acids at position 226 on a prototypic H9 HA subtype IAV. We isolated H9 viruses that carried naturally occurring amino acids, variants found in other subtypes, and variants not found in any subtype at position 226. Fitness studies in quails revealed that some natural amino acids conferred an in vivo replication advantage. This study shows the flexibility of position 226 of the HA of H9 influenza viruses and the resulting effect of single amino acid changes on the phenotype of variants in vivo and in vitroIMPORTANCE A single amino acid change at position 226 in the hemagglutinin (HA) from glutamine (Q) to leucine (L) has been shown to play a key role in receptor specificity switching in various influenza virus HA subtypes, including H9. We tested the flexibility of amino acid usage and determined the effects of such changes. The results reveal that amino acids other than L226 and Q226 are well tolerated and that some amino acids allow for the recognition of both avian and human influenza virus receptors in the absence of other changes. Our results can inform better avian influenza virus surveillance efforts as well as contribute to rational vaccine design and improve structural molecular dynamics algorithms.

Alternative Strategy for a Quadrivalent Live Attenuated Influenza Virus Vaccine.

Influenza virus infections continue to pose a major public health threat worldwide associated with seasonal epidemics and sporadic pandemics. Vaccination is considered the first line of defense against influenza. Live attenuated influenza virus vaccines (LAIVs) may provide superior responses compared to inactivated vaccines because the former can better elicit a combination of humoral and cellular responses by mimicking a natural infection. Unfortunately, during the 2013-2014, 2014-2015, and 2015-2016 seasons, concerns emerged about the effectiveness of the only LAIV approved in the United States that prevented the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) from recommending its use. Such drawbacks open up the opportunity for alternative LAIV strategies that could overcome such concerns. Previously, we developed a combined strategy of temperature-sensitive mutations in the PB2 and PB1 segments and an epitope tag in the C terminus of PB1 that effectively attenuates influenza A viruses of avian and mammalian origin. More recently, we adopted a similar strategy for influenza B viruses. The resulting attenuated (att) influenza A and B viruses were safe, immunogenic, and protective against lethal influenza virus challenge in a variety of animal models. In this report, we provide evidence of the potential use of our att strategy in a quadrivalent LAIV (QIV) formulation carrying H3N2 and H1N1 influenza A virus subtype viruses and two antigenic lineages of influenza B viruses. In naive DBA/2J mice, two doses of the QIV elicited hemagglutination inhibition (HI) responses with HI titers of ≥40 and effectively protected against lethal challenge with prototypical pandemic H1N1 influenza A and influenza B virus strains.IMPORTANCE Seasonal influenza viruses infect 1 billion people worldwide and are associated with ∼500,000 deaths annually. In addition, the never-ending emergence of zoonotic influenza viruses associated with lethal human infections and of pandemic concern calls for the development of better vaccines and/or vaccination strategies against influenza virus. Regardless of the strategy, novel influenza virus vaccines must aim at providing protection against both seasonal influenza A and B viruses. In this study, we tested an alternative quadrivalent live attenuated influenza virus vaccine (QIV) formulation whose individual components have been previously shown to provide protection. We demonstrate in proof-of principle studies in mice that the QIV provides effective protection against lethal challenge with either influenza A or B virus.