Effects of Attentional Strategies on Novice Dart Throwing, Quiet Eye Duration and Pupillary Responses.

This study examined the effects of focus of attention (FOA) instructions on learning a dart throwing task, quiet eye duration (QED) and pupillary responses. Thirty-six novices (M age = 33.6, SD = 19.7) learned using either (a) internal-focus (arm movement), (b) external-focus (target/dart) or (c) control instructions before completing retention and transfer tests 10 days later. FOA strategies did not significantly benefit dart throwing learning or performance. QED was associated with performance in the transfer task, and pupillary constriction occurred during the QED. The content of FOA instructions may have limited anticipated performance benefits and reduced the FOA influence on QED. Pupillary constriction reflected increased cognitive effort during QED, suggesting an important feature of future precision aiming research.

A test of optimal theory on young adolescents' standing long jump performance and motivation.

The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning contends that an external focus of attention (EF), enhanced expectancies (EE), and autonomy support (AS) are key attentional and motivational variables that optimise motor performance. We examined how integrating an EF into EE and AS interventions would impact young adolescents' standing long jump performance and self-efficacy, perceived competence, task effort, task importance and positive affect. Forty-eight participants completed 3 jumps in a baseline, EF (focus on jumping towards the cone), EE-EF (positive social-comparative feedback/high success probability) and AS-EF (self-definition of success) conditions. Both the EF and AS-EF conditions (but not the EE-EF condition) improved jump performance from baseline. The EF, EE-EF and AS-EF conditions improved young adolescents' self-efficacy, perceived competence, task effort and positive affect in comparison to baseline and were predictors of jump performance (as was task importance). However, in the EE-EF condition motivational states improved (from baseline) but this did not translate into performance improvements. The findings show that directing attention to visual external cues both independently and when framed within AS conditions enhanced young adolescents' jump performance and motivation through efficient goal-action coupling. In practice, PE teachers and sports coaches working with young adolescents can support autonomy by allowing self-definition of success using an external cue to enhance effective goal-action coupling, motor performance and motivation.

Beyond visual fixations and gaze behaviour. Using pupillometry to examine the mechanisms in the planning and motor performance of a golf putt.

The present study assessed the potential value of using pupillometry to explore skill level differences in the allocation of attention during planning and performance of a golf putt across three putting conditions of varying complexity. Although numerous studies have reported on skill level differences in performers' visual search behaviours, performance accuracy and quiet eye duration (QE) across a range of performance settings, few have provided an objective measure of the allocation of attention during task performance. Fourteen participants were assigned to two groups [low handicap (LHG) and high handicap (HHG)] completing ten putts in three conditions; right to left (RL), left to right (LR) and straight (ST) from 1.75 m while wearing a mobile eye tracker. Skill based differences in the allocation of attention during green exploration and skill execution were observed. Pupil constriction observed for both groups during the QE period provides evidence of increased workload directly related to the increased motor task precision required in the physical performance of the putt. LHG had significantly more fixations of longer duration than their HHG counterparts. Distinct differences were also evident between skill levels in relation to number of fixations, fixation duration and QE duration on each putting condition. The significantly longer QE duration and larger pupil constrictions exhibited by skilled performers offer evidence of a distinctive concentration of cognitive activity characterised by highly automated processes.

Determining eye-hand coordination using the sport vision trainer: an evaluation of test-retest reliability.

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the number of test-retest trials required to familiarize participants in order to provide acceptable reliability for the measurement of an eye-hand coordination task using the Sport Vision Trainer (SVT). Two schedules were conducted (S1 and S2). For S1, 64 participants (male n = 51, age 20.8 ± 4.9 years; female n = 13, age 20.1 ± 2.1 years) attended four sessions each 1 week apart, and undertook four trials using the SVT. For S2, 60 participants (male n = 46, age 20.8 ± 4.9 years; female n = 14, age 20.1 ± 2.1 years) attended one 20-minute schedule consisting of four consecutive trials using the SVT. Limits of agreement (LoA) analyses showed that absolute reliability was increased in both studies. The LoA for S2 indicate that error decreased between trial 1-2, 2-3, and 3-4; ± 0.95 (CI, -1.16, +2.56sec), ± 0.97 (CI, -1.66, +2.14sec), ± 0.69 (CI, -1.08, +1.62sec). It was concluded that reliable measurements of eye-hand coordination can be obtained using the SVT in one session.