ABSTRACT
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that make use of the host metabolic machineries to meet their biosynthetic needs, identifying the host pathways essential for the virus replication may lead to potential targets for therapeutic intervention. The mechanisms and pathways explored by SARS-CoV-2 to support its replication within host cells are not fully known. Lipid droplets (LD) are organelles with major functions in lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis, and have multiple roles in infections and inflammation. Here we described that monocytes from COVID-19 patients have an increased LD accumulation compared to SARS-CoV-2 negative donors. In vitro, SARS-CoV-2 infection modulates pathways of lipid synthesis and uptake, including CD36, SREBP-1, PPAR{gamma} and DGAT-1 in monocytes and triggered LD formation in different human cells. LDs were found in close apposition with SARS-CoV-2 proteins and double-stranded (ds)-RNA in infected cells. Pharmacological modulation of LD formation by inhibition of DGAT-1 with A922500 significantly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication as well as reduced production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Taken together, we demonstrate the essential role of lipid metabolic reprograming and LD formation in SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis, opening new opportunities for therapeutic strategies to COVID-19.
ABSTRACT
Infection by SARS-CoV-2 may elicit uncontrolled and damaging inflammatory responses. Thus, it is critical to identify compounds able to inhibit virus replication and thwart the inflammatory reaction. Here, we show that the plasma levels of the immunoregulatory neuropeptide VIP are elevated in patients with severe COVID-19, correlating with reduced inflammatory mediators and with survival on those patients. In vitro, VIP and PACAP, highly similar neuropeptides, decreased the SARS-CoV-2 genome replication in human monocytes and viral production in lung epithelial cells, also reducing cell death. Both neuropeptides inhibited the production of proinflammatory mediators in lung epithelial cells and in monocytes. VIP and PACAP prevented in monocytes the SARS-CoV-2-induced activation of NF-kB and SREBP1 and SREBP2, transcriptions factors involved in proinflammatory reactions and lipid metabolism, respectively. They also promoted CREB activation, a transcription factor with antiapoptotic activity and negative regulator of NF-kB. Specific inhibition of NF-kB and SREBP1/2 reproduced the anti-inflammatory, antiviral and cell death protection effects of VIP and PACAP. Our results support further clinical investigations of these neuropeptides against COVID-19.
ABSTRACT
Current approaches of drugs repurposing against 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) have not proven overwhelmingly successful and the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic continues to cause major global mortality. Daclatasvir (DCV) and sofosbuvir (SFV) are clinically approved against hepatitis C virus (HCV), with satisfactory safety profile. DCV and SFV target the HCV enzymes NS5A and NS5B, respectively. NS5A is endowed with pleotropic activities, which overlap with several proteins from SARS-CoV-2. HCV NS5B and SARS-CoV-2 nsp12 are RNA polymerases that share homology in the nucleotide uptake channel. We thus tested whether SARS-COV-2 would be susceptible these anti-HCV drugs. DCV consistently inhibited the production of infectious SARS-CoV-2 in Vero cells, in the hepatoma cell line (HuH-7) and in type II pneumocytes (Calu-3), with potencies of 0.8, 0.6 and 1.1 M, respectively. Although less potent than DCV, SFV and its nucleoside metabolite inhibited replication in Calu-3 cells. Moreover, SFV/DCV combination (1:0.15 ratio) inhibited SARS-CoV-2 with EC50 of 0.7:0.1 M in Calu-3 cells. SFV and DCV prevented virus-induced neuronal apoptosis and release of cytokine storm-related inflammatory mediators, respectively. Both drugs inhibited independent events during RNA synthesis and this was particularly the case for DCV, which also targeted secondary RNA structures in the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Concentrations required for partial DCV in vitro activity are achieved in plasma at Cmax after administration of the approved dose to humans. Doses higher than those approved may ultimately be required, but these data provide a basis to further explore these agents as COVID-19 antiviral candidates.
ABSTRACT
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is already responsible for far more deaths than previous pathogenic coronaviruses (CoVs) from 2002 and 2012. The identification of clinically approved drugs to be repurposed to combat 2019 CoV disease (COVID-19) would allow the rapid implementation of potentially life-saving procedures. The major protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2 is considered a promising target, based on previous results from related CoVs with lopinavir (LPV), an HIV protease inhibitor. However, limited evidence exists for other clinically approved antiretroviral protease inhibitors, such as atazanavir (ATV). ATV is of high interest because of its bioavailability within the respiratory tract. Our results show that ATV could dock in the active site of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, with greater strength than LPV. ATV blocked Mpro activity. We confirmed that ATV inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication, alone or in combination with ritonavir (RTV) in Vero cells, human pulmonary epithelial cell line and primary monocytes, impairing virus-induced enhancement of IL-6 and TNF- levels. Together, our data strongly suggest that ATV and ATV/RTV should be considered among the candidate repurposed drugs undergoing clinical trials in the fight against COVID-19.
