Measuring Psychological Resilience in Aging: Findings From the Health and Retirement Study and National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health.

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the measurement properties of 2 emerging psychological resilience (PR) measures constructed for use in large national data sources and to test their reliability across social axes including race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Research Design and Methods: Using 2006/2008 data, the Simplified Resilience Score and the Add Health Resilience Scale were tested using overall and multigroup measurement models in a structural equation modeling framework. Results: Both PR measures perform well as reliable, 1-factor latent constructs capturing adaptive capacity at various life stages. Both measures showed measurement consistency across social axes, with specific differences in item measurement across some racial/ethnic groups. Discussion and Implications: The results indicate these measures represent high quality, consistent measures of PR in nationally representative aging and health data. The availability of reliable, valid measures of PR enables consistent evaluation of resilience in health and aging processes.

Adherence Promotion With Tailored Motivational Messages: Proof of Concept and Message Preferences in Older Adults.

This study examined the feasibility of using tailored text messages to promote adherence to longitudinal protocols and determined what facets of text message tone influence motivation. Forty-three older adults (Mage = 73.21, SD = 5.37) were recruited to engage in video-game-based cognitive training for 10 consecutive days. Participants received encouraging text messages each morning that matched their highest or lowest ranking reasons for participating in the study, after which they rated how effective each message was in motivating them to play the games that day. After 10 days, participants rated all possible messages and participated in semi-structured interviews to elicit their preferences for these messages. Results showed that messages matching participants' reasons for participating were more motivating than mismatched messages. Further, participants preferred messages that were personalized (i.e., use second person voice) and in formal tones. Messages consistent with these preferences were also rated as more motivating. These findings establish the feasibility of using message tailoring to promote adherence to longitudinal protocols and the relevance of tailoring messages to be personal and formal.

Prospective exploration of the role of combined internalizing symptoms in self-reported memory among older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: A growing literature suggests depression and anxiety increase risk of cognitive decline. However, few studies have examined their combined effects on cognition, among older adults, especially during periods of high stress. METHOD: Based on a sample of community dwelling older adults (N = 576), we evaluated the effects of pre-pandemic anxiety and depressive symptoms, obtained in September 2018, to changes in self-reported memory (SRM) assessed 3 months into the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: In separate models, we found participants with depression scores at least 1-SD above the mean and participants with anxiety scores at least 2-SD above the mean to report a significant decline in SRM. Moderation analyses revealed those with high depressive symptoms (at or above the mean) showed a decrease in SRM regardless of anxiety. The extent to which high pre-pandemic anxiety symptoms influenced SRM is dependent on whether pre-pandemic depression was at or above the mean. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-pandemic depression predicted a decline in SRM regardless of anxiety. Moderation analyses revealed that the extent to which anxiety symptoms influenced SRM was dependent on depression being at or above the mean. Those with high anxiety and depression are at highest risk of experiencing cognitive consequences related to stressful exposures like COVID-19.

Work and income instability and retirement financial wellbeing for women and men.

Financial wellbeing in retirement is contingent on realizations of financial expectations developed earlier in life and may differ substantially by gender. People's standard of living in retirement is tied to stability in work and income trajectories during working years along with retirement benefits and savings. Women have a greater overall income disadvantage relative to men, including reduced life course labor force exposure that may restrict retirement savings and benefits. Using the Canadian Longitudinal and International Study of Adults (LISA) and 20 years of linked tax record data (N = 2,353), we explore the association between instability in work and income histories and lower perceived retirement standard of living (PRSOL), net of retirement benefits, for women and men in Canada. Results show that for women, life course effects shaping PRSOL are driven by cumulative disability exposure and bouts of social assistance. For men, PRSOL is influenced more by cumulative unemployment. Although retirement benefits do not offset histories of work and income instability for either gender, income assistance is protective for women in retirement while personal investments are protective for men. Overall, our findings suggest that despite Canada's relatively generous pension program in later life, life course instability in work and income have persisting, gendered effects on financial wellbeing in retirement that underscore financial and health disadvantage for women across the life course.

Terms of Engagement: Understanding the Motivations, Preferences, and Attitudes of Older Adults Toward Mobile Cognitive Assessment and Training.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The future of cognitive assessment is likely to involve mobile applications for smartphones and tablets; cognitive training is also often delivered in these formats. Unfortunately, low adherence to these programs can hinder efforts at the early detection of cognitive decline and interfere with examining cognitive training efficacy in clinical trials. We explored factors that increase adherence to these programs among older adults. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Focus groups were conducted with older adults (N = 21) and a younger adult comparison group (N = 21). Data were processed using reflexive thematic analysis with an inductive, bottom-up approach. RESULTS: Three primary themes related to adherence were developed from the focus group data. Switches of engagement reflects factors that must be present; without them, engagement is unlikely. Dials of engagement reflects a cost-benefit analysis that users undergo, the outcome of which determines whether a person will be more or less likely to engage. Bracers of engagement reflects factors that nudge users toward engagement by minimizing barriers associated with the other themes. Older adults in general were more sensitive to opportunity costs, preferred more cooperative interactions, and were more likely to mention technology barriers. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Our results are important for informing the design of mobile cognitive assessment and training apps for older adults. These themes provide guidance about ways apps could be modified to increase engagement and adherence, which in turn can more effectively facilitate the early detection of cognitive impairment and the evaluation of cognitive training efficacy.

Health Care Stereotype Threat and Sexual and Gender Minority Well-Being.

Sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) have experienced progressive change over the last 50 years. However, this group still reports worse health and health care experiences. An innovative survey instrument that applies stereotype threat to the health care setting, health care stereotype threat (HCST), offers a new avenue to examine these disparities. We harmonized two national probability data sets of SGMs-Generations and TransPop-capturing 503 gay men, 297 lesbians, 467 bisexuals, and 221 trans people. Using these data, we, first, explored how HCST's association with self-rated health and psychological distress changed while considering more established constructs: discrimination and stigma. Second, we examined how HCST's association varied across SGM groups. Results suggest that HCST is a unique predictor net of the associations with discrimination and stigma. Furthermore, results highlight the more consequential associations for trans people on well-being compared to gay men. We discuss implications of these findings for future research and potential interventions.

A longitudinal examination of the protective effect of resilience against anxiety among older adults with high COVID-related worry.

This longitudinal study of community dwelling older adults (N = 453) examined consequences of COVID-related worries on changes in anxiety symptoms before relative to during the pandemic. We further evaluated if pre-COVID psychological resilience (PR) buffered the impact of COVID-related worry. Pre-COVID data were collected in September 2018. COVID-related worry and COVID anxiety symptoms were collected in October 2020 (Wave 2). Controlling for pre-COVID anxiety symptoms, we examined if COVID-related worries (e.g. I'm worried that I might die from COVID-19) were associated with increased anxiety symptoms, and whether pre-COVID PR moderated the association between COVID-related worries and prospective increases in anxiety symptoms. COVID-related worries were associated with increased anxiety symptoms (ß = 0.005, p < .01), whereas pre-COVID PR was associated with a decrease in anxiety symptoms (ß = -0.029, p < .05). PR moderated the association; COVID-related worries were associated with greater increases in anxiety symptoms among those with low pre-COVID PR (Model η2 = 0.35). Thus, the extent to which COVID-related worries influenced psychological health was dependent on pre-COVID levels of PR. We conclude the combined vulnerabilities of low pre-COVID PR and high COVID-related worries significantly increased the psychological consequences of COVID-19 for our sample of older adults.

Race-Ethnic Differences in the Effects of COVID-19 on the Work, Stress, and Financial Outcomes of Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigates race-ethnic differences among older non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, and Hispanic adults' financial, employment, and stress consequences of COVID-19. METHODS: We use data from the Health and Retirement Study, including the 2020 COVID-panel, to evaluate a sample of 2,929 adults using a combination of bivariate tests, OLS regression analysis, and moderation tests. RESULTS: Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black older adults experienced more financial hardships, higher levels of COVID-19 stress, and higher rates of job loss associated with COVID-19 relative to their Non-Hispanic White counterparts. Non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic adults reported significantly higher levels of COVID-19 resilience resources, yet, these resources were not protective of the consequences of COVID-19. DISCUSSION: Understanding how the experiences of managing and coping with COVID-19 stressors differ by race-ethnicity can better inform intervention design and support services.

Life Satisfaction and Intergenerational Mobility Among Older Hispanics in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the impact of intergenerational mobility-measured as the difference between one's own and one's father's education level-on overall life-satisfaction among Hispanic, White, and Black older Americans. METHODS: Data from the Health and Retirement Study were used to estimate life satisfaction by race/ethnicity using ordinary least squares regression (N = 5,057). RESULTS: Hispanic and Black older Americans report greater educational gains relative to their fathers compared to Whites. Despite having the lowest reported education levels, Hispanics report the highest life satisfaction across race/ethnic groups. However, net of education level and other factors, intergenerational mobility decreased rather than increased life satisfaction for Hispanic older Americans. DISCUSSION: These results indicate that intergenerational mobility may not confer equal benefits for overall life satisfaction across racial/ethnic groups. As Hispanic individuals continue to achieve higher education levels, it is unclear whether upward mobility will translate to positive or negative assimilation consequences.

Productive Aging Lifestyles: A Latent Class Analysis of Work and Volunteer Patterns over the Retirement Transition.

Frank Caro and colleagues' foundational work set the stage for a broad and multifaceted productive aging (PA) literature. Recent PA research has focused on health benefits associated with work and volunteering, respectively. However, these activities are often assumed to have independent associations with health and wellbeing. Less clear is whether and in what ways older adults participate in productive engagement lifestyles including multiple activities over a long period of time. This paper uses latent class analyses and the Health and Retirement Study to examine combined engagement in work and volunteer activities over 12 years between ages 56-68 to (1) identify patterns of work and volunteer activities across the retirement transition, (2) evaluate characteristics of individuals within these patterns, and (3) explore whether particular patterns are associated with markers of health and wellbeing. We describe how our findings inform successful aging by incentivizing socially and individually beneficial PA lifestyles.

History of childhood mistreatment and the psychological health consequences of COVID-19 for older adults.

OBJECTIVES: We examine the associations between childhood mistreatment (emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional neglect) and older adults' changes in depressive symptoms from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic (September 2018-June 2020). METHODS: Using a community-based sample of older adults in North Florida (N = 581), we used ordinary least-squares regression to estimate associations between childhood mistreatments and depressive symptoms in June 2020, controlling for baseline symptoms and demographic characteristics. Additional models tested whether emotion regulation and social support attenuated associations between childhood mistreatments and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Older adults exposed to emotional neglect in childhood saw a greater increase in depressive symptoms than those who did not experience childhood mistreatment. Those reporting childhood physical abuse had higher baseline depressive symptoms, but they did not increase during the pandemic. These associations remained stable after controlling for emotion regulation and social support, coping resources thought to contribute to linkages between childhood mistreatment and psychological health in adulthood. CONCLUSION: Childhood mistreatment might inform the psychological consequences of major stressors in later life. Thus, early life interventions for children experiencing mistreatment could be especially important for long-term psychological health outcomes and responses to major stressful events. Identifying older people with histories of childhood mistreatment could also help clinicians gauge patients' risk of psychological decline during times such as the COVID-19 pandemic and tailor psychological health interventions.

Prediction of COVID-19-related distress: the role of anxiety and resiliency.

OBJECTIVES: Among older adults, anxiety is a likely risk factor for COVID-19-related distress, whereas psychological resilience may attenuate the negative impact of the pandemic. In this longitudinal study, we hypothesized that pre-pandemic anxiety would predict higher COVID-19-related distress, whereas resiliency would predict lower distress. Further we hypothesized that resilience would moderate the association between anxiety and distress. METHODS: Pre-pandemic data (July 2018) was obtained from a community sample of older adults and included measures of anxiety and resiliency. We conducted a follow-up survey (n = 571) during the pandemic (June 2020) and evaluated COVID-19-related distress. We used OLS regression to test our hypotheses. RESULTS: Anxiety symptoms predicted higher COVID-19-related distress; resiliency predicted lower distress. Resiliency did not moderate the association between anxiety and distress. High levels of resiliency, compared to low levels, attenuated the influence of anxiety on COVID-19-related distress, but only among those with low-to-moderate levels of anxiety. CONCLUSION: Older adults with anxiety may be more susceptible to COVID-19 related distress. Interventions that increase resilience, may mitigate distress, and promote healthy aging for those with low-to-moderate anxiety. Further research, however, is needed to help those older adults with high anxiety contend with such adverse experiences and build on psychological resources.

Race-Discordant School Attendance and Cognitive Function in Later Life.

Early schooling plays an important role in shaping cognitive development. This study explored benefits of cognitive functioning in later life related to attending diverse schools in early life. Specifically, we explored the effects of having attended schools composed primarily of different race peers-race discordant schools (RDS)-among Black and White older adults. Using retrospective and prospective data from the Health and Retirement Study, we examined the association between RDS exposure and two measures of cognitive function (working memory, episodic memory) at age 55 and at age 70. We found that RDS exposed Blacks experienced significant benefits in cognitive function at age 55 and at age 70. In general, RDS exposed Whites did not experience cognitive benefits or deficits. Results suggest that exposure to more racially diverse school environments provides potentially beneficial effects for cognitive function, particularly in later phases of the life course.

Emotion regulation and the late positive potential (LPP) in older adults.

Emotion regulation (ER) processes in older adults may be important for successful aging. Neural correlates of ER processes have been examined using event-related brain potentials (ERPs), such as the late-positive potential (LPP) during cognitive reappraisal paradigms. The current study sought to extend this research by examining the LPP from an ER task in a sample of 47 community-dwelling older adults between the ages of 60 and 84 years, scoring either high on emotional well-being (as measured by habitual ER use and resiliency; high WB group, n = 20) or low on emotional well-being (as measured by habitual ER use, resiliency, and depression; low WB group, n = 27). Participants viewed unpleasant and neutral images and were instructed to simply react to the images or reappraise their emotional response. Both pre- and post-instruction LPP amplitudes were scored, in addition to self-reported ratings of negative emotion collected during the task. We found greater LPP amplitude to emotionally salient compared to neutral stimuli, reduced LPP amplitude following instructions to reappraise emotional response to stimuli across groups, and a blunted LPP overall for individuals with higher depressive symptoms. Additionally, we demonstrated that older adults with low emotional well-being were less successful at reappraisal according to self-reported ratings of negative emotion, although this was not reflected in the LPP. Collectively, these data suggest that laboratory-based ER tasks might be used to understand abnormal ER use-though the LPP may be more sensitive to depression than individual differences in ER ability.

Motivation to Engage in Aging Research: Are There Typologies and Predictors?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Study recruitment and retention of older adults in research studies is a major challenge. Enhancing understanding of individual differences in motivations to participate, and predictors of motivators, can serve the dual aims of facilitating the recruitment and retention of older adults, benefiting study validity, economy, and power. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Older adults (N = 472) past and potential participants were surveyed about motivations to participate in research, demographic, and individual difference measures (e.g., health status, cognitive difficulties). Latent class and clustering analyses explored motivation typologies, followed by regression models predicting individual motivators and typologies. RESULTS: Older adults endorsed a diversity of research motivations, some of which could be predicted by individual difference measures (e.g., older participants were more motivated by the desire to learn new technology, participants without a college education were more motivated by financial compensation, and participants with greater self-reported cognitive problems were more likely to participate to gain cognitive benefit). Clustering analysis revealed 4 motivation typologies: brain health advocates, research helpers, fun seekers, and multiple motivation enthusiasts. Cognitive difficulties, age, employment status, and previous participation predicted membership in these categories. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Results provide an understanding of different participant motivations beyond differences between younger and older adults and begin to identify different classes of older adults motivated to participate in research studies. Results can provide guidance for targeted recruitment and retention strategies based on individual differences in stated or predicted motivations.

Financial Hardship and Psychological Resilience During COVID-19: Differences by Race/Ethnicity.

OBJECTIVES: Research on the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among older adults has primarily focused on relatively acute virus outcomes, but it is likely financial hardships during this time have eroded the adaptive capacity of older adults. It is also possible these impacts vary by race and ethnicity. We examine changes in psychological resilience (PR) among older adults before and during the pandemic to determine whether financial hardships and other stressors have altered this resource for White, Black, and Hispanic older adults. METHOD: Using the COVID-19 module released by the Health and Retirement Study (n = 735), we examined changes in PR between 2016 and 2020 related to financial hardships during COVID-19. We tested interactions to determine whether the effects were patterned by race and ethnicity. RESULTS: Consistent with previous literature, resilience was relatively stable during this time on average. Financial hardship during COVID-19 diminished resilience, but this effect was concentrated primarily among White Americans. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that PR is a relatively stable resource in later life, even during the pandemic. However, this resource may be affected in the face of specific challenges in later life. Policies related to financial hardship during the pandemic should be seen as supporting the capacity for older adults to adapt to current as well as future challenges.

A Brief Report on Older Working Caregivers: Developing a Typology of Work Environments.

OBJECTIVES: A growing proportion of the U.S. labor force juggles paid work with family caregiving of older adults. However, no research has examined caregivers' work environments. The purpose of this brief report is to develop typologies of the work environments of family caregivers. METHODS: This study used data drawn from the 2008-2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Our sample includes employed individuals who also provided regular help with daily activities to a parent or spouse (n = 976). We used latent class analysis to develop caregiver work environment typologies. RESULTS: Our analyses revealed 4 typologies among caregivers: (a) high-quality work environments (n = 340; 35%); (b) average work environments with high job lock (n = 293; 30%); (c) low-quality work environments (n = 203; 21%); and (d) high personal interference in supportive work environments (n = 140; 14%). Although only 21% of working caregivers were in a low-quality work environment (Type C), descriptive results suggest that these workers were most likely to be minorities who needed to work for financial reasons, reporting the highest number of health problems, and the most work hours. DISCUSSION: Our findings provide insights into the types of environments that caregivers work in, and the characteristics of individuals in those environments. We discuss implications of our findings for future research and work-based policy development.

Social Support and Depressive Symptoms Among Men and Women With Same-Sex Experiences in Later Life.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Social support is a vital psychological health resource for well-being in later life. However, research on the associations of social support has largely excluded sexual minorities. This study compares the association between sources of social support and depressive symptoms across groups of older heterosexual and sexual minority men and women. Sexual minority status herein is based on self-reported sexual histories of having same-sex and opposite-sex only experiences (SSE and OSO). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Based on a pooled cross-sectional data set drawn from 3 waves of the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project, we used ordinary least squares regression and moderation tests to evaluate how 3 sources of social support-partner, family, friend-are related to depressive symptoms for SSE and OSO men and women. RESULTS: Results show OSO men and women both had significant negative associations between depressive symptoms and social support regardless of the source. SSE women, in contrast, only have a significant association between high levels of friend support, and SSE men only show significant effects in relation to high levels of partner support. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: These results suggest the effects of social support on psychological health are significantly constrained/circumscribed for sexual minority men and women. Interventions designed to decrease symptoms of depression in older sexual minorities through social support are discussed.

Cognitive reappraisal, emotional suppression, and depressive and anxiety symptoms in later life: The moderating role of gender.

OBJECTIVES: Although socioemotional selectivity (SST) suggests that people experience more positive affect as they age, symptoms of anxiety and depression persist and are often greater in older women than men. Coping strategies may influence the extent to which older adults experience these symptoms. The purpose of the current study is to examine possible gender differences in the use of an adaptive (cognitive reappraisal (CR) and a maladaptive (emotive suppression (ES) emotion regulation strategy in relation to depressive and anxiety symptoms. METHOD: Our study uses cross-sectional data drawn from a community sample of older adults (60+; n = 906). We used OLS regression and moderation analyses to test our study hypotheses. RESULTS: Gender moderated the association between CR in both depressive and anxiety symptoms. Women reported greater use of CR relative to men. Further, CR use was negatively related to symptoms of anxiety and depression in women, but not men. In contrast, men used ES more frequently than women, though older men and women's use of ES was unrelated to anxiety or depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide initial evidence that greater CR use in older women is related to lower symptoms of both anxiety and depression relative to older men. Age-related increases in CR use (e.g. SST) among women may serve to decrease anxiety and depression symptoms. Findings suggest decreasing anxiety and depressive symptoms via CR may benefit older women more than older men. Future research is needed to identify the coping strategies that are most beneficial for men.

Dog Walking and the Social Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Loneliness in Older Adults.

Pet ownership can provide important companionship and facilitate social connections, which may be particularly important to socially isolated older adults. Given the significant deleterious impact of loneliness on health and wellbeing in later life, many predicted that public safety measures imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic would greatly increase loneliness, particularly among vulnerable populations like older adults. We investigated whether dog walking buffers loneliness in the context of stressors imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Longitudinal survey data were obtained from a Florida community-based sample of adults (n = 466) aged 60+ years old in September 2018 and October 2020. Using OLS regression models, we tested: a) the association between the social consequences of COVID-19 and changes in loneliness, and b) the buffering effect of dog walking on this relationship. The high social consequences of COVID-19 were related to increases in loneliness. Walking a dog daily buffered the relationship. These results suggest potential therapeutic effects of dog walking for the promotion of mental health in older adults, particularly in the context of stressful situations that accentuate risks for loneliness.