Effectiveness of physical activity interventions for preschoolers: a meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the meta-analysis was to examine the effectiveness of physical activity interventions on physical activity participation among preschoolers. A secondary purpose was to investigate the influence of several possible moderator variables (e.g., intervention length, location, leadership, type) on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). METHOD: Nine databases were systematically searched for physical activity interventions. Studies were included if they contained statistics necessary to compute an effect size (ES), were written in or translated into English, examined physical activity in preschoolers, incorporated a physical activity intervention, and targeted preschool-aged children. Fifteen studies satisfied these criteria. ESs were calculated using a random-effects model. RESULTS: Results indicated that overall, interventions had a small-to-moderate effect on general physical activity (Hedges g = 0.44, p < .05, n = 73 ESs) and a moderate effect on MVPA (Hedges g = 0.51, p < .05, n = 39 ESs). The greatest effects for MVPA were identified for interventions that were less than 4 weeks in duration, were offered in an early-learning environment, were led by teachers, involved outdoor activity, and incorporated unstructured activity. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis provides an overview and synthesis of physical activity interventions and highlights effective strategies for future interventions aimed at increasing physical activity levels among preschoolers.

Development of a cohesion questionnaire for youth: the Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire.

The purpose of the current study was to initiate the development of a psychometrically sound measure of cohesion for youth sport groups. A series of projects were undertaken in a four-phase research program. The initial phase was designed to garner an understanding of how youth sport group members perceived the concept of cohesion through focus groups (n = 56), open-ended questionnaires (n = 280), and a literature review. In Phase 2, information from the initial projects was used in the development of 142 potential items and content validity was assessed. In Phase 3, 227 participants completed a revised 87-item questionnaire. Principal components analyses further reduced the number of items to 17 and suggested a two-factor structure (i.e., task and social cohesion dimensions). Finally, support for the factorial validity of the resultant questionnaire was provided through confirmatory factor analyses with an independent sample (n = 352) in Phase 4. The final version of the questionnaire contains 16 items that assess task and social cohesion in addition to 2 negatively worded spurious items. Specific issues related to assessing youth perceptions of cohesion are discussed and future research directions are suggested.

The use of group dynamics strategies to enhance cohesion in a lifestyle intervention program for obese children.

BACKGROUND: Most research pertaining to childhood obesity has assessed the effectiveness of preventative interventions, while relatively little has been done to advance knowledge in the treatment of obesity. Thus, a 4-week family- and group-based intervention utilizing group dynamics strategies designed to increase cohesion was implemented to influence the lifestyles and physical activity levels of obese children. METHODS/DESIGN: This paper provides an overview of the rationale for and implementation of the intervention for obese children and their families. Objectives of the intervention included the modification of health behaviors and cohesion levels through the use of group dynamics strategies. To date, a total of 15 children (7 boys and 8 girls, mean age = 10.5) and their families have completed the intervention (during the month of August 2008). Physiological and psychological outcomes were assessed throughout the 4-week intervention and at 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-up periods. DISCUSSION: It is believed that the information provided will help researchers and health professionals develop similar obesity treatment interventions through the use of evidence-based group dynamics strategies. There is also a need for continued research in this area, and it is our hope that the Children's Health and Activity Modification Program (C.H.A.M.P.) will provide a strong base from which others may build.

Item wording and internal consistency of a measure of cohesion: the group environment questionnaire.

A common practice for counteracting response acquiescence in psychological measures has been to employ both negatively and positively worded items. However, previous research has highlighted that the reliability of measures can be affected by this practice (Spector, 1992). The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect that the presence of negatively worded items has on the internal reliability of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). Two samples (N = 276) were utilized, and participants were asked to complete the GEQ (original and revised) on separate occasions. Results demonstrated that the revised questionnaire (containing all positively worded items) had significantly higher Cronbach alpha values for three of the four dimensions of the GEQ. Implications, alternatives, and future directions are discussed.

Older adults' preferences for exercising alone versus in groups: considering contextual congruence.

BACKGROUND: A growing body of research suggests that older exercisers prefer to exercise alone rather than in group-based settings. One limitation of these studies, however, has been that researchers have failed to take into account the age-related characteristics of groups when asking adults about their preferences for exercise settings. PURPOSE: The overall purpose of this study was to examine the exercise preferences of 947 adults for involvement in standard exercise classes populated by participants from various categories across the age spectrum. RESULTS: The results revealed that when faced with the prospect of exercising with considerably older or younger exercisers, participants found such an exercise context to be largely unappealing. However, in accordance with the basic tenets of self-categorization theory, the results revealed that older and younger adults alike express a positive preference for exercising in standard exercise classes comprised of similarly aged participants. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study challenge a growing call for exercise interventions for older adults to be primarily directed at the individual-level, and suggest that group-related intervention strategies may indeed be attractive to older exercisers.

The home advantage in sport competitions: Courneya and Carron's (1992) conceptual framework a decade later.

This paper had three aims. The first was to review research carried out on the home advantage from 1992 to the present. The second was to examine the extent to which a conceptual framework proposed by Courneya and Carron (1992) was/is viable as a tool to highlight and organize an understanding of the home advantage. The final aim was to provide suggestions for future research.

Physical activity context and university student's propensity to meet the guidelines Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/American College of Sports Medicine.

BACKGROUND: Previous research shows that exercise context is important for exercise adherence--exercising alone is associated with reduced adherence whereas exercising with others is associated with increased adherence. The purpose of the study was to examine whether exercising in one or a combination of four contexts for physical activity (in a structured class, with others outside of a structured class, alone but in an exercise setting, and completely alone) is related to the degree to which university students meet prescribed (i.e., CDC/ACSM) guidelines for aerobic activity. MATERIAL/METHODS: Males (n=196) and females (n=398) completed a self-reported physical activity questionnaire pertaining to the frequency, intensity and duration of their activity in the four contexts outlined above. RESULTS: A positive relationship was found between the percentage of students meeting CDC/ACSM Guidelines and the number of contexts in which physical activity was undertaken. That is, a small percentage (9.9%) were active in a single context (i.e., only one context out of a possible four), with the majority of those (5.9%) engaging in physical activity with others outside of a structured setting. A larger percentage (28.9%) were active in two contexts, while 61.2% were active in three or more contexts. CONCLUSIONS: Health care professionals interested in motivating the physically inactive to become more active and the physically active to maintain activity at a frequency, intensity, and duration sufficient to meet the CDC/ACSM guidelines ought to promote opportunities for physical activity in a variety of social contexts.

Caution in interpreting confirmatory factor analysis of the group environment questionnaire: a response to Sullivan, Short, and Cramer (2002).

Reasons for cautious interpretation of the confirmatory factor analysis of the Group Environment Questionnaire by Sullivan, Short, and Cramer (2002) are specified.

Role ambiguity and athlete satisfaction.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between athletes' perceptions of role ambiguity and satisfaction. The relationship between these multidimensional constructs was investigated at the beginning and at the end of the season, as well as from early season to end of season. Consistent with the a prioi hypothesis, concurrent analyses revealed lower perceived role ambiguity was associated with higher athlete satisfaction. Specifically, role ambiguity, as represented by the dimension Scope of Responsibilities on offence, was significantly related to the leadership facets of athlete satisfaction (i.e. ability utilization, strategy, and training/instruction) both at the beginning and at the end of the season. However, contrary to expectations, role ambiguity at the beginning of the season was not predictive of athlete satisfaction at the end of the season. The implications of the results are discussed and future research is suggested.

Team cohesion and team success in sport.

The main aim of this study was to examine the relationship between task cohesiveness and team success in elite teams using composite team estimates of cohesion. A secondary aim was to determine statistically the consistency (i.e. 'groupness') present in team members' perceptions of cohesion. Elite university basketball teams (n = 18) and club soccer teams (n = 9) were assessed for cohesiveness and winning percentages. Measures were recorded towards the end of each team's competitive season. Our results indicate that cohesiveness is a shared perception, thereby providing statistical support for the use of composite team scores. Further analyses indicated a strong relationship between cohesion and success (r = 0.55-0.67). Further research using multi-level statistical techniques is recommended.

The Impact of Group Size in an Exercise Setting.

Two independent studies were conducted to examine the impact of group size in an exercise setting. In the first, archival data from 47 exercise classes varying in size from 5 to 46 members were used to examine the relationship between group size and behavior. Attention and retention were high in small and large exercise classes and specific social psychologocal correlates of group size including the participants' perceptions of conspicuousness, quality and quantity of interactions with their leader, their opportunities for social interaction with other members, the level of crowding and density, and satisfaction. Trend analyses showed a curvilinear relationship between exercise class size and participants' perceptions of the opportunities available for social interaction and feelings of crowding and density. Both the small and large classes were perceived more favorably than the medium classes. The relationships between class size and perceptions of the instructor as well as the level of satisfaction experienced were linear-positive perceptions decreased systematically as class size increased.