The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and race-based traumatic stress.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the relationships between race-based traumatic stress symptoms (RBTSS), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and negative affect (NA) in the past year. METHOD: Participants were 185 community-based respondents who completed a paper and pencil survey of the race-based traumatic stress symptoms scale (RBTSSS), diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM)-related PTSD symptoms, and negative emotions. RESULTS: Two canonical correlation analyses were conducted for two participant groups: those with no race-based traumatic stress (RBTS) elevations and those with one or more RBTS elevations. Results showed a significant relationship between RBTS symptoms and PTSD symptoms for the no elevation group, and a significant relationship between RBTS symptoms and NA for the race-based stress/traumatic stress group. Notably, RBTS inclusion was not significantly correlated with NA. CONCLUSIONS: Those with average-level RBTS symptoms appear to endorse more PTSD criteria, while those with elevated RBTS scores do not. The study, therefore, highlights the need for further investigation of how diagnostic measures of trauma may differentiate from trauma symptoms related to race-based experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial discrimination and trauma symptoms: Further support for the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale.

OBJECTIVES: This study provides further validity for scores produced by the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (RBTSSS), through examining the relationship between perceived discrimination, trauma symptoms, and mental health symptoms with the RBTSSS. METHOD: Participants consisted of 148 people of color (54% women) with an average age of 33.38 years. Study hypotheses were tested using correlational and regression analyses. RESULTS: Validity was supported by strong relations with established symptom scores and perceived discrimination. Regression analysis found RBTSSS to be a significant predictor of trauma symptoms, controlling for general stress. Finally, multivariate analysis found perceived discrimination to be a stronger predictor of RBTSSS symptoms than general stress. CONCLUSIONS: The RBTSSS demonstrates strong relations with other symptom measures and perceived discrimination, supporting the validity of the RBTSSS scores. Both researchers and practitioners may benefit from use of the instrument which captures emotional outcomes specific to racial trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Construct validity of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale and tests of measurement equivalence.

OBJECTIVES: The study was designed to examine the construct, measurement equivalence, and predictive validity of the Race-Based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale (RBTSSS). METHOD: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used with adults from various racial backgrounds throughout the Northeast. RESULTS: The CFA revealed a good model fit and a second-order SEM supported the concept of race-based traumatic stress. Measurement equivalence was found for gender and race. Convergent validity was tested using canonical correlation analysis, whereby RBTSSS reactions were related to psychological outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the CFA and SEM provide support for the measurement and theoretical models of the RBTSSS. Study findings offer scholarly and practical contributions to trauma assessment and treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Appropriated Racial Oppression Scale: Development and preliminary validation.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to develop an instrument to measure "internalized racism" called appropriated racial oppression for people of Color. METHOD: Generated items were reviewed by experts in the areas of multicultural psychology and scale construction. A total sample of 656 adults was collected in 2 phases: The first phase consisted of 341 adults (Age: M = 35, SD = 12.05). Of these, 99 were Black, 70 multiracial, 61 Asian, 61 Latino, 37 Native American, 10 identified as "other," and 3 participants did not answer. Most were female (n = 256), and heterosexual (n = 277). In the second phase, there were 315 adults (Age: M = 35; SD = 12.05). Eighty were Black, 68 Multiracial, 56 Asian, 54 Latino, 40 Native American, 16 were other and 1 participant did not answer. Two-thirds were female (n = 216) and heterosexual (n = 251). RESULTS: The 341 adult participants' responses were used to run exploratory factor analysis that revealed a 32-item, 4-factor structure for the construct of appropriated racial oppression. The 315 adult participants' data were used in a confirmatory factor analysis that resulted in a 4-factor, 24-item model fit. To test for both predictive and criterion-related validity, a path analysis was conducted. Results of the path analysis demonstrated significant relationships between appropriated racial oppression and anxiety and depression. CONCLUSION: It has been found that there is preliminary evidence for the validity of the newly developed Appropriated Racial Oppression Scale. Moreover, results of this study provide critical information in assisting clinicians treating individuals with appropriated racial oppression.

The relationship between racial identity status attitudes, racism-related coping, and mental health among Black Americans.

To date, few studies have examined how different strategies for coping with racism affect the mental health of Black Americans, and none have explored how racial identity status attitudes and racism-related coping affect mental health. This study sought to examine the relationship between racial identity status attitudes, the specific strategies used by Black Americans to cope with racism, and mental health outcomes. Participants were 233 Black adults, and cluster analysis identified four cluster groups that differed significantly with respect to the patterns of racial identity attitudes and racism-related coping strategies employed. Although the groups did not differ significantly in well-being, the group with predominantly high Internalization status attitudes and that used primarily Empowered Resistance racism-related coping strategies had the least psychological symptoms. Implications for mental health and research are discussed.

Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: a meta-analytic review.

The literature indicates that perceived racism tends to be associated with adverse psychological and physiological outcomes; however, findings in this area are not yet conclusive. In this meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed 66 studies (total sample size of 18,140 across studies), published between January 1996 and April 2011, on the associations between racism and mental health among Black Americans. Using a random-effects model, we found a positive association between perceived racism and psychological distress (r = .20). We found a moderation effect for psychological outcomes, with anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric symptoms having a significantly stronger association than quality of life indicators. We did not detect moderation effects for type of racism scale, measurement precision, sample type, or type of publication. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Race-related stress, racial identity status attitudes, and emotional reactions of Black Americans.

The current study explored the relationship between race-related stress, racial identity status attitudes and emotional states among 229 Black Americans. Canonical correlation analyses revealed a shared variate between emotions and racial identity status attitudes in which anger, depression confusion and tension were related positively to Conformity and inversely related to Internalization status attitudes. Implications for research are discussed.

An exploratory examination of the associations among racial and ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms in a college student population.

In this study, we examined the association among perceptions of racial and/or ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms among 289 racially diverse college undergraduates. Study measures included the Perceived Stress Scale, the Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire, the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Civilian Version, and the Racial Climate Scale. Results of a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that Asian and Black students reported more frequent experiences of discrimination than did White students. Additionally, the MANOVA indicated that Black students perceived the campus racial climate as being more negative than did White and Asian students. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that when controlling for generic life stress, perceptions of discrimination contributed an additional 10% of variance in trauma-related symptoms for Black students, and racial climate contributed an additional 7% of variance in trauma symptoms for Asian students.

An exploratory investigation of the relationship between racism, racial identity, perceptions of health, and health locus of control among black American women.

This exploratory investigation examined the relationship between racial identity and perceived racism as predictor variables and perceptions of health status and health locus of control as criterion variables in a sample of 90 Black American women. Results of a canonical correlational analysis indicated a shared variance of 37% between these two sets of variables. This finding highlights the need to focus on perceived racism and racial identity attitudes as potentially important factors for consideration when seeking to understand health disparities in the United States.

A guide to the forensic assessment of race-based traumatic stress reactions.

A large body of empirical evidence has accumulated over the past decade documenting the psychiatric and emotional consequences of racism and racial discrimination. Still, little has been written in the legal or psychiatric assessment literature that is focused on describing the direct and specific effects of racism and offering guidance to forensic psychiatrists in understanding, assessing, and treating the race-based stress reactions that may occur as a result of exposure to racial discrimination or harassment. This article uses the analysis of a case study to illustrate and extend previous work on the evaluation of racial discrimination by providing a guide to the forensic assessment of the psychiatric and emotional impact of race-based encounters--a guide that can be used both in preparing expert reports and in developing treatment approaches.