Corneal toxicity of xylazine and clonidine, in combination with ketamine, in the rat.

PURPOSE: To compare the corneal toxicity of xylazine (XYL)/ketamine (KET) with that of clonidine (CLO)/KET in the rat, in the presence or not of the alpha(2)-adrenergic antagonist yohimbine (YOH). METHODS: XYL (10 mg/kg) and CLO (0.15 mg/kg) were administered subcutaneously in the rat in combination with KET (50 mg/kg), in the presence or not of YOH (2 mg/kg). RESULTS: The corneas immediately lost transparency and luster, but recovered within 120 min. By both light and electron microscopy, a marked stromal edema and alterations of all layers were observed. In addition, XYL/KET altered the permeability of the cornea as indicated by the augmented levels of (14)C-indomethacin, topically administered 30 min after the anesthetic combination. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism of the corneal toxicity of XYL and CLO in the rat is unclear but we speculate that: (a) proptosis and inhibition of normal blinking did not play a major role because topical application of hyaluronic acid did not protect against it; corneal decompensation, edema and opacification could be due to (b) osmotic or (c) mechanical endothelial stress: the first resulting from the sudden increase of the glucose concentration in the aqueous humor due to the well-known inhibition of insulin release by alpha(2)-adrenergic agonists, and the second from the acute elevation of intraocular pressure caused by these alpha(2)-adrenergic mydriatics in the rat; (d) addition, XYL and CLO could act by directly interacting with local alpha(2)- or, possibly, alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors, whose function is still not clear but probably essential for corneal homeostasis.

Inhibition of heat-induced denaturation of albumin by nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): pharmacological implications.

The activity of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in rheumatoid arthritis is not only due to the inhibition of the production of prostaglandins, which can even have beneficial immunosuppressive effects in chronic inflammatory processes. Since we speculated that these drugs could also act by protecting endogenous proteins against denaturation, we evaluated their effect on heat-induced denaturation human serum albumin (HSA) in comparison with several fatty acids which are known to be potent stabilizers of this protein. By the Mizushimas assay and a recently developed HPLC assay, we observed that NSAIDs were slightly less active [EC50 to approximately 10(-5)-10(-4) M] than FA and that the HPLC method was less sensitive but more selective than the turbidimetric assay, i.e. it was capable of distinguishing true antiaggregant agents like FA and NSAIDs from substances capable of inhibiting the precipitation of denatured protein aggregates. In conclusion, this survey could be useful for the development of more effective agents in protein condensation diseases like rheumatic disorders, cataract and Alzheimers disease.

Stabilization of rat serum proteins following oral administration of fish oil.

The mechanism of action of fish oil (FO), currently used in different chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), is not completely understood, although it is thought that it could alter the metabolism of endogenous autacoids. In addition, we hypothesized that the known capability of fatty acids (FA) of stabilizing serum albumin and perhaps other proteins, may be of pharmacological relevance considering that it is shared by other anti-rheumatic agents (e.g. nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs). Thus, we studied the effect of oral administration of FO and corn oil (CO), a vegetable oil with a different composition, on the stability of rat serum proteins, evaluated by a classical in vitro method based on heat-induced protein denaturation. FO, and, to a lower extent, CO inhibited heat-induced denaturation of rat serum (RS): based on the inhibitory activity (EC50) of the major fatty acids against heat-induced denaturation of RS in vitro, it was possible to speculate that in vivo effects of palmitic acid (C16:0) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5, n-3) may be more relevant than that of linolenic acid (C18:2). To better investigate this phenomenon, we extracted albumin from the serum of animals treated or not with FO with a one-step affinity chromatography technique, obtaining high purity rat serum albumin preparations (RSA-CTRL and RSA-FO), as judged by SDS-PAGE with Coomassie blue staining. When these RSA preparations were heated at 70 degrees C for 30 min, it was noted that RSA-FO was much more stable than RSA-CTRL, presumably due to higher number of long chain fatty acids (FA) such as palmitic acid or EPA. In conclusion, we provided evidences that oral administration of FO in the rat stabilizes serum albumin, due to an increase in the number of protein bound long chain fatty acids (e.g. palmitic acid and EPA). We speculate that the stabilization of serum albumin and perhaps other proteins could prevent changes of antigenicity due to protein denaturation and glycosylation, which may trigger pathological autoimmune responses, suggesting that this action may be involved in the mode of action of FO in RA and other chronic inflammatory diseases.

Inhibition of protein denaturation by fatty acids, bile salts and other natural substances: a new hypothesis for the mechanism of action of fish oil in rheumatic diseases.

Natural hydrophobic substances like bile salts (cholate, deoxycholate, chenodeoxycholate, lithocholate and their conjugates with glycine and taurine), fatty acids (caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid) were much more active (EC50 approximately 10(-4)-10(-5) M) than selected amino acids (EC50 > 10(-2) M) and inorganic salts (EC50 approximately 10(-1) M) in inhibiting heat-induced denaturation of human serum albumin in vitro. Fish oil, rich in n-3-polyunsaturated acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, administered p.o. (1 ml/kg) in the rat, protected ex vivo (after 2 hr) serum against heat-induced denaturation more than bendazac, a known antidenaturant drug. Thus, we speculated that the antidenaturant activity of fish oil may be partly (in addition to the known effect on endogenous eicosanoid composition) responsible for its beneficial effects in rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic conditions. In this connection, it is of note that the in vitro antidenaturant activity of fish oil fatty acids was higher than that of known antidenaturant drugs such as bendazac and bindarit and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like phenylbutazone and indomethacin which could exert beneficial effects in chronic inflammatory conditions by stabilizing endogenous proteins.

Development of an HPLC assay to study the effect of endogenous and exogenous substances on heat-induced aggregation of human serum albumin.

The mechanism of action of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs which are used in high doses in chronic inflammatory conditions is not clearly understood. Their known protein-stabilizing properties could play a significant role. The inhibition of cyclooxygenase may not be essential for their anti-rheumatic activity, since compounds with strong anti-denaturant properties and devoid of anti-inflammatory activity were shown to be effective in an experimental model of rheumatoid arthritis. Hence, to develop new anti-rheumatic drugs it is essential that a simple in vitro method to evaluate the anti-denaturant activity of endogenous and exogenous compounds is available. We developed a new assay, using gel permeation high performance liquid chromatography, to study the effect of endogenous and exogenous compounds on heat-induced aggregation of human serum albumin in conditions in which protein precipitation does not occur. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like diclofenac, ibuprofen and naproxen inhibited the aggregation of albumin at low concentrations (EC50 10(-4)-10(-5) mol/l) comparable to those active in a classical turbidimetric method, whereas the effect of weak stabilizers, like sodium cloride and formic, fumaric, maleic, malonic, and succinic acid (EC50 10(-1)-10(-2) mol/l in the Mizushima test) was not detectable. Furthermore, the HPLC assay allowed the examination of a number of coloured substances, including bilirubin, which appeared to be a strong stabilizer of its physiological carrier, albumin. These data could be clinically relevant, since the drugs examined are used at very high doses in rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, with plasma levels that could cause significant stabilization of serum albumin and perhaps other proteins.

Development of a turbidimetric assay to study the effect of urinary components on calcium oxalate precipitation.

The pharmacological treatment of calcium urinary stones, most of which are made of calcium oxalate (CaOx), is only prophylactic. The causes of nephrolithiasis are often unclear, and a number of patients were found to be deficient in physiological inhibitors, e.g. citrate, pyrophosphate, magnesium, and specific proteins. The identification and characterization of these inhibitors can be performed in vitro by a number of methods, most of which are complex and time-consuming. Thus, we developed a simple turbidimetric method based on the precipitation of CaOx from a supersaturated solution. Using this approach, we determined that ionic strengths > 0.2 and pH < 5 inhibited the precipitation of CaOx. The first observation is of interest if one considers that the osmolarity of urine varies in the range of 50-1,400 mmol/kg, while the effect of pH is not usually seen in vivo because of the influence of other phenomena, such as the precipitation of uric acid. The activity of sodium chloride, magnesium and citrate was displayed at concentrations not far from their normal urinary level. Among several mono-, di- and tricarboxylic acids, like acetic, ascorbic, citric, isocitric, formic, fumaric, gluconic, glutaric, alpha-ketoglutaric, maleic, malic, malonic, propionic, pyruvic, succinic, and tartaric acid, only isocitric acid was more potent than citric acid. Pyrophosphate was a potent inhibitor in vitro, but its urinary level may not be sufficient for a significant effect in vivo. Amino acids like Ala, Arg, Asp, Glu, Gly, and Ser which are known to bind calcium, showed little activity. Work is in progress to search for new compounds potentially useful in the treatment of nephrolithiasis.