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1.
J Environ Sci (China) ; 49: 213-221, 2016 Nov.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28007177

ABSTRACT

The assessment of occupational exposure to diesel exhaust (DE) is important from an epidemiological perspective. Urinary biomarkers of exposure have been proposed as a novel approach for measuring exposure to DE. In this study, we measured the concentrations of two urinary metabolites of 1-nitropyrene (1NP), a nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that has been suggested as a molecular marker of diesel particulate matter. These two metabolites, 6-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene and 8-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene, were determined in urine samples (10mL) from a small group of workers who were occupationally-exposed to vehicle exhaust in Trujillo, Peru, before and after their workshifts. Workshift exposures to 1NP, as well as PM2.5, 2-nitropyrene and 2-nitrofluoranthene, were also measured. Exposures to 1NP were similar in all studied workers, averaging 105±57.9pg/m3 (±standard deviation). Median urinary concentrations of the average of the pre- and post-exposure samples for 6-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene and 8-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene, were found to be 3.9 and 2.3pgmetabolite/mg creatinine, respectively in the group of occupationally-exposed subjects (n=17) studied. A direct relationship between workshift exposure to 1NP and urinary 1NP metabolites concentrations was not observed. However, the 1NP exposures and the creatinine-corrected urinary concentrations of the hydroxynitropyrene metabolites in these Peruvian traffic workers were similar to occupationally-exposed taxi drivers in Shenyang, China, and were higher than biomarker levels in office workers from Trujillo without occupational exposure to vehicle exhaust. This study provides further evidence that urinary metabolites of 1NP are associated with exposure to DE and may serve as a useful exposure biomarker.


Subject(s)
Air Pollutants, Occupational/urine , Occupational Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/urine , Vehicle Emissions , Adult , Biomarkers/urine , Humans , Male , Occupational Exposure/analysis , Pyrenes/urine
2.
Arch Environ Occup Health ; 70(1): 10-8, 2015.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24215174

ABSTRACT

Although evidence suggests associations between maternal exposure to air pollution and adverse birth outcomes, pregnant women's exposure to household air pollution in developing countries is understudied. Personal exposures of pregnant women (N = 100) in Trujillo, Peru, to air pollutants and their indoor concentrations were measured. The effects of stove-use-related characteristics and ambient air pollution on exposure were determined using mixed-effects models. Significant differences in 48-hour kitchen concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations were observed across fuel types (p < 0.05). Geometric mean PM2.5 concentrations where 112 µg/m(3) (confidence limits [CLs]: 52, 242 µg/m(3)) and 42 µg/m(3) (21, 82 µg/m(3)) in homes where wood and gas were used, respectively. PM2.5 exposure was at levels that recent exposure-response analyses suggest may not result in substantial reduction in health risks even in homes where cleaner burning gas stoves were used.


Subject(s)
Air Pollutants/analysis , Air Pollution, Indoor/analysis , Cooking/methods , Maternal Exposure , Particulate Matter/analysis , Adult , Carbon Monoxide/analysis , Environmental Monitoring , Family Characteristics , Female , Humans , Nitrogen Dioxide/analysis , Peru , Pregnancy , Smoke/analysis , Volatile Organic Compounds/analysis
3.
Nutr J ; 12: 80, 2013 Jun 11.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23758715

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: In developing countries, deficiencies in essential micronutrients are common, particularly in pregnant women. Although, biochemical indicators of diet and nutrition are useful to assess nutritional status, few studies have examined such indicators throughout pregnancy in women in developing countries. METHODS: The primary objective of this study was to assess the nutritional status of 78 Peruvian women throughout pregnancy for 16 different nutritional indicators including fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids, iron-status indicators, and selenium. Venous blood samples from which serum was prepared were collected during trimesters one (n = 78), two (n = 65), three (n = 62), and at term via the umbilical cord (n = 52). Questionnaires were completed to determine the demographic characteristics of subjects. Linear mixed effects models were used to study the associations between each maternal indicator and the demographic characteristics. RESULTS: None of the women were vitamin A and E deficient at any stage of pregnancy and only 1/62 women (1.6%) was selenium deficient during the third trimester. However, 6.4%, 44% and 64% of women had ferritin levels indicative of iron deficiency during the first, second and third trimester, respectively. Statistically significant changes (p ≤ 0.05) throughout pregnancy were noted for 15/16 nutritional indicators for this Peruvian cohort, with little-to-no association with demographic characteristics. Three carotenoids (beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin and trans-lycopene) were significantly associated with education status, while trans-lycopene was associated with age and beta-cryptoxanthin with SES (p < 0.05). Concentrations of retinol, tocopherol, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein + zeaxanthin and selenium were lower in cord serum compared with maternal serum (p < 0.05). Conversely, levels of iron status indicators (ferritin, transferrin saturation and iron) were higher in cord serum (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The increasing prevalence of iron deficiency throughout pregnancy in these Peruvian women was expected. It was surprising though not to find deficiencies in other nutrients. The results highlight the importance of continual monitoring of women throughout pregnancy for iron deficiency which could be caused by increasing fetal needs and/or inadequate iron intake as pregnancy progresses.


Subject(s)
Diet , Nutritional Status , Pregnancy Trimesters/physiology , Adult , Carotenoids/blood , Cryptoxanthins , Developing Countries , Female , Fetal Blood/chemistry , Humans , Iron, Dietary/blood , Linear Models , Lutein/blood , Lycopene , Micronutrients/blood , Micronutrients/deficiency , Nutrition Surveys , Peru , Pregnancy , Selenium/blood , Socioeconomic Factors , Surveys and Questionnaires , Vitamin A/blood , Xanthophylls/blood , Young Adult , Zeaxanthins , beta Carotene/blood
4.
Chemosphere ; 91(10): 1426-33, 2013 Jun.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23453434

ABSTRACT

Although the production and use of some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been banned or highly restricted, human exposure remains a subject of investigation due to their environmental persistence. Physiological changes during pregnancy may affect the disposition of POPs in the mother's body, and thus fetal exposure. Changes in serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) across pregnancy trimesters, and trans-placental transfer to the fetus were investigated. Seventy-nine pregnant women in Trujillo, Peru were recruited in the first trimester of pregnancy, and provided blood samples for the analysis of 35 PCB congeners, 9 OCPs, and 11 polybrominated biphenyl diethers (PBDEs). Subsequently, maternal blood samples were collected in the second (n=64) and third trimesters (n=59), and cord blood samples (n=50) were collected at delivery. There were statistically significant changes across trimesters (p<0.05) for both fresh weight (increase) and lipid adjusted concentrations (decrease) of hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 2,2-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethene (p,p'-DDE), PCB-74, 118, 138-158, 153, 170, 180 and 194. Fresh weight concentrations of these POPs increased from first to third trimester by 10-28%. On the other hand lipid adjusted concentrations decreased from first to third trimester by 16-28%. Serum lipids increased from first to third trimester by 53% indicating the dilution of the POPs in the lipids. Concentrations of 2,2-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (p,p'-DDT), its metabolite p,p'-DDE, PCB-118, 138-158, 153, 170 and 180 above their limits of detection were measured in >60% of cord serum samples. Intra-individual correlations in maternal serum concentrations were high for most of the POPs (ρ=0.62-0.99; p<0.05) while correlations between maternal and cord serum concentrations were also high (ρ=0.68-0.99; p<0.05). Results indicate that the disposition in the body and blood concentrations of POPs may change during pregnancy, and show trans-placental transfer of DDT, DDE and PCBs.


Subject(s)
Environmental Pollutants/blood , Fetal Blood/chemistry , Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers/blood , Maternal Exposure , Polychlorinated Biphenyls/blood , Adolescent , Adult , Environmental Pollutants/pharmacokinetics , Female , Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers/pharmacokinetics , Humans , Maternal-Fetal Exchange , Middle Aged , Peru , Polychlorinated Biphenyls/pharmacokinetics , Pregnancy , Pregnancy Trimesters , Surveys and Questionnaires , Tissue Distribution , Young Adult
5.
Environ Int ; 53: 1-8, 2013 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23314038

ABSTRACT

Women and children in developing countries are often exposed to high levels of air pollution including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which may negatively impact their health, due to household combustion of biomass fuel for cooking and heating. We compared creatinine adjusted hydroxy-PAH (OH-PAH) concentrations in pregnant women in Trujillo, Peru who cook with wood to levels measured in those who cook with kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas or a combination of fuels. Seventy-nine women were recruited for the study between May and July 2004 in the first trimester of their pregnancy. Urine samples were collected from the subjects in the first, second and third trimesters for OH-PAH analyses. The concentrations of the OH-PAHs were compared across the type of fuel used for cooking and pregnancy trimesters. The relationships between OH-PAHs levels in the first trimester and concurrently measured personal exposures to PM2.5, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide together with their indoor and outdoor air concentrations were also investigated. Women cooking with wood or kerosene had the highest creatinine adjusted OH-PAH concentrations compared with those using gas, coal briquette or a combination of fuels. Concentrations of creatinine adjusted 2-hydroxy-fluorene, 3-hydroxy-fluorene, 1-hydroxy-fluorene, 2-hydroxy-phenanthrene and 4-hydroxy-phenanthrene were significantly higher (p<0.05) in women who used wood or kerosene alone compared with women who used liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal briquette or a combination of fuels. An increase in the concentrations of creatinine adjusted 9-hydroxy-fluorene, 1-hydroxy-phenanthrene, 2-hydroxy-phenanthrene, 4-hydroxy-phenanthrene and 1-hydroxy-pyrene in the third trimesters was also observed. Weak positive correlation (Spearman correlation coefficient, ρ<0.4; p<0.05) was observed between all first trimester creatinine adjusted OH-PAHs and indoor (kitchen and living room), and personal 48-h TWA PM2.5. Women who cooked exclusively with wood or kerosene had higher creatinine adjusted OH-PAH levels in their urine samples compared to women who cooked with LPG or coal briquette.


Subject(s)
Air Pollutants/urine , Air Pollution, Indoor/analysis , Cooking/methods , Environmental Monitoring/methods , Maternal Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/urine , Adult , Air Pollutants/analysis , Air Pollution, Indoor/statistics & numerical data , Carbon Monoxide/analysis , Coal , Developing Countries , Female , Humans , Kerosene , Peru , Phenanthrenes/analysis , Phenanthrenes/urine , Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/analysis , Pregnancy , Pyrenes/analysis , Pyrenes/urine , Wood/chemistry , Young Adult
6.
J Occup Environ Hyg ; 9(4): 217-29, 2012.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22455670

ABSTRACT

Public transport vehicle drivers, especially in highly polluted or trafficked areas, are exposed to high levels of air pollutants. In this study, we assessed the influence of traffic on levels of hydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAHs) in commercial bus drivers in Trujillo, Peru, by measuring the within-shift changes in the urinary whole weight and creatinine-corrected concentrations of the PAH metabolites. We measured personal PM(2.5) as a proxy of exposure to traffic emission. Urine samples were collected daily from two bus drivers and three minivan drivers in Trujillo, pre-, mid-, post-work shift and on days when the drivers were off work (total n = 144). Ten OH-PAH metabolites were measured in the urine samples. Drivers were also monitored for exposure to PM(2.5) (n = 41). Daily work shift (mean = 13.1 ± 1.3 hr) integrated PM(2.5) was measured in the breathing zones of the drivers for an average of 10.5 days per driver. The differences across shift in OH-PAH concentrations were not statistically significant except for urinary 2-hydroxyfluorene (2-FLU) (p = 0.04) and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene (4-PHE) (p = 0.01) and creatinine-corrected 4-hydroxyphenanthrene (p = 0.01). Correlation between pairs of hydroxy-PAHs (ρ = 0.50 to 0.93) were highest for mid-shift samples. Concentrations of PM(2.5) (geometric mean = 64 µg/m(3); 95% confidence limits = 52 µg/m(3), 78 µg/m(3)) is similar to those measured in many other studies of traffic exposure. There was significant change across work shift for concentrations of only two of the OH-PAHs (2-FLU and 4-PHE). Results indicate that the drivers may have had limited time for clearance of PAH exposure from the body between work shifts. Comparisons of the concentrations of creatinine-corrected hydroxy-PAH to those reported in other studies indicate that exposure of public transport drivers to PAH could be similar. By following the subjects over multiple days, this study gives an indication of appropriate exposure situations for the use of hydroxy-PAHs and will be beneficial in designing future occupational studies of PAH exposure.


Subject(s)
Air Pollutants/analysis , Inhalation Exposure/analysis , Occupational Exposure/analysis , Particulate Matter/analysis , Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/urine , Adult , Biomarkers/urine , Fluorenes/urine , Humans , Middle Aged , Motor Vehicles , Peru , Phenanthrenes/urine , Time Factors , Vehicle Emissions
7.
J Environ Health ; 73(1): 14-8, 2010.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20687327

ABSTRACT

Street-level and rooftop (three-story building) concentrations of particulate matter < or = 2.5 microm in diameter (PM2.5) were measured in downtown Trujillo, Peru, in July and August 2003 to determine the PM2.5 concentration reduction on days with normal traffic conditions (32 days) versus a day when motor vehicles were temporarily banned from the downtown district (8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., July 15) known as El Dia Sin Autos ("The Day Without Cars"). The mean 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. street-level PM2.5 concentration during the motor vehicle ban (21.4 microg/m3; one day) was 49% lower than when vehicles were not impeded (42.2 +/- 7.8 microg/m3--mean +/- 1 standard deviation; 20 days). The rooftop monitoring station indicated a 20% decrease in PM2.5 concentrations (24.8 +/- 2.6 microg/m3 vs. 19.9 +/- 6.0 microg/m3) when motor vehicles were not present within historic downtown Trujillo. Temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed during the motor vehicle ban and during normal traffic were not significantly different (p > .05).


Subject(s)
Conservation of Energy Resources , Particulate Matter/analysis , Urban Population , Vehicle Emissions/analysis , Vehicle Emissions/prevention & control , Humans , Peru
8.
Chemosphere ; 80(11): 1301-7, 2010 Sep.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20701950

ABSTRACT

Phthalates are a group of phthalic acid esters which are used as plasticizers and additives. In laboratory animals, several phthalates are known endocrine disruptors. Several studies have described phthalate exposure in the United States and developed countries but little is known about phthalate exposure in the developing world, particularly during pregnancy. To assess exposure to six different phthalates, we measured the concentrations of nine phthalate metabolites in spot urine samples collected during the first, second, and third trimester of pregnancy from a group of 72 women living in Trujillo, Peru. Additionally, women completed questionnaires to provide demographic characteristics. Statistical analysis via linear models was used to evaluate potential differences in the concentrations of phthalate metabolites by trimester, cooking fuel type, socioeconomic status, and education. All metabolites were detected in>40% of samples analyzed, and mono-n-butyl phthalate, mono (2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate, and monoethyl phthalate were found in>90% of samples. Five of nine unadjusted urinary metabolites and four of nine creatinine-adjusted urinary metabolites were significantly lower in this group of pregnant women living in Peru compared to pregnant women in the US general population.


Subject(s)
Environmental Monitoring , Environmental Pollutants/metabolism , Maternal Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Phthalic Acids/metabolism , Plasticizers/metabolism , Adolescent , Adult , Environmental Pollutants/blood , Environmental Pollutants/urine , Female , Humans , Middle Aged , Peru , Phthalic Acids/blood , Phthalic Acids/urine , Pregnancy , Young Adult
9.
Sci Total Environ ; 381(1-3): 47-58, 2007 Aug 01.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-17481696

ABSTRACT

In Baguio City, Philippines, a mountainous city of 252,386 people where 61% of motor vehicles use diesel fuel, ambient particulate matter <2.5 microm (PM(2.5)) and <10 microm (PM(10)) in aerodynamic diameter and carbon monoxide (CO) were measured at 30 street-level locations for 15 min apiece during the early morning (4:50-6:30 am), morning rush hour (6:30-9:10 am) and afternoon rush hour (3:40-5:40 pm) in December 2004. Environmental observations (e.g. traffic-related variables, building/roadway designs, wind speed and direction, etc.) at each location were noted during each monitoring event. Multiple regression models were formulated to determine which pollution sources and environmental factors significantly affect ground-level PM(2.5), PM(10) and CO concentrations. The models showed statistically significant relationships between traffic and early morning particulate air pollution [(PM(2.5)p=0.021) and PM(10) (p=0.048)], traffic and morning rush hour CO (p=0.048), traffic and afternoon rush hour CO (p=0.034) and wind and early morning CO (p=0.044). The mean early morning, street-level PM(2.5) (110+/-8 microg/m3; mean+/-1 standard error) was not significantly different (p-value>0.05) from either rush hour PM(2.5) concentration (morning=98+/-7 microg/m3; afternoon=107+/-5 microg/m3) due to nocturnal inversions in spite of a 100% increase in automotive density during rush hours. Early morning street-level CO (3.0+/-1.7 ppm) differed from morning rush hour (4.1+/-2.3 ppm) (p=0.039) and afternoon rush hour (4.5+/-2.2 ppm) (p=0.007). Additionally, PM(2.5), PM(10), CO, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and select volatile organic compounds were continuously measured at a downtown, third-story monitoring station along a busy roadway for 11 days. Twenty-four-hour average ambient concentrations were: PM(2.5)=72.9+/-21 microg/m3; CO=2.61+/-0.6 ppm; NO2=27.7+/-1.6 ppb; benzene=8.4+/-1.4 microg/m3; ethylbenzene=4.6+/-2.0 microg/m3; p-xylene=4.4+/-1.9 microg/m3; m-xylene=10.2+/-4.4 microg/m3; o-xylene=7.5+/-3.2 microg/m3. The multiple regression models suggest that traffic and wind in Baguio City, Philippines significantly affect street-level pollution concentrations. Ambient PM(2.5) levels measured are above USEPA daily (65 microg/m3) and Filipino/USEPA annual standards (15 microg/m3) with concentrations of a magnitude rarely seen in most countries except in areas where local topography plays a significant role in air pollution entrapment. The elevated pollution concentrations present and the diesel-rich nature of motor vehicle emissions are important pertaining to human exposure and health information and as such warrant public health concern.


Subject(s)
Air Pollutants/analysis , Carbon Monoxide/analysis , Gasoline , Particulate Matter/analysis , Vehicle Emissions/analysis , Environmental Monitoring , Linear Models , Particle Size , Philippines
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