Building paths to success: a multilevel analysis of the effects of an emotional intelligence development program on the academic achievement of future teachers.

Introduction: The situation generated by the recent pandemic has had several effects on education, one of them being the necessary but hasty efforts of teachers and students to adapt to the demands of a virtual classroom environment. Thus, it is essential to promote the development of digital competencies in future teachers, enabling them to create effective learning situations in the digital medium. Moreover, the European university curriculum includes a set of specific competencies (specific to each degree) and a series of generic competencies, many of which are related to emotional intelligence. Our work emerges from these specific premises and the more general need to develop emotional skills and learning abilities in virtual environments for future educators. Methods: The sample comprised 240 students in higher education, pursuing a bachelor's degree in education at the University of Alicante, Spain (68.3% were female and average age of the participants was 19.43 years SD = 4.127). Using a quasi-experimental design with pretests, posttests, and a control group, we present the effects of an online program aimed at improving the emotional skills and academic achievement of future teachers in higher education. In this study, a 30-h emotional intelligence training program was implemented. Since the student sample was grouped into different classes, we analyzed, using a generalized linear mixed-effects model, whether students who took the program showed a significant improvement in their academic achievement at the end of their studies, compared to those who did not take it. Results: The findings show a significant improvement in the academic achievement at the end of the bachelor's degree studies of the students in the experimental group. Discussion: These results open up a field of possibilities for the implementation of this type of training using virtual environments, enabling interventions to enhance the emotional development of the teaching staff (and, subsequently, in their students), develop their teaching careers adequately, and employ the ideal strategies to address educational programs. Looking ahead, the integration of emotional development programs that incorporate emerging technology into university curricula could enhance the preparation of educators profoundly and create adaptable learning environments for contemporary students.

Influencia de los factores de vulnerabilidad al VIH/sida sobre comportamientos sexuales de riesgo en adolescentes

Objetivo: Determinar la influencia de los factores de vulnerabilidad al VIH/sida sobre los comportamientos sexuales de riesgo en los adolescentes. Método: Estudio transversal correlacional predictivo. Muestra aleatoria estratificada de 1000 adolescentes de colegios públicos de una localidad de Bogotá, Colombia. Se estimó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales que examinó los efectos de los factores vulnerabilidad al VIH/sida sobre los comportamientos sexuales de riesgo (escala EVA-CSR), controlando las variables: consumo de alcohol, número de parejas sexuales, inicio de la vida sexual y edad. Resultados: Sobre los comportamientos sexuales de riesgo el modelo presentó: un ajuste adecuado; explica un 31% de la varianza; reportó efecto directo de educación sexual sanitaria, educación sexual escolar, expresión emocional el colegio, relaciones sexuales por amor a la pareja, maltrato de la pareja, consumo de alcohol, inicio de la vida sexual, número de parejas sexuales; y efecto mediador de la expresión emocional en el colegio, la educación sexual sanitaria y las relaciones sexuales por amor a la pareja. Conclusiones: Los comportamientos sexuales de riesgo del adolescente se explican con cinco factores de vulnerabilidad al VIH/sida y tres variables de control. Los estudios futuros deben centrarse en factores causales y mediadores que fortalezcan la evidencia de causalidad y en intervención sobre comportamientos sexuales de riesgo controlando las variables predictoras.

Objective: To determine the influence of vulnerability factors to HIV/AIDS on sexual risk behaviors in adolescents. Method: Predictive correlational cross-sectional study. Stratified random sample of 1000 adolescents from public schools in a locality of Bogotá-Colombia. A model of structural structures was estimated that demonstrated the effects of vulnerability factors to HIV/AIDS on sexual risk behaviors (VAS-CSR scale), controlling the variables: alcohol consumption, number of sexual partners, beginning of sexual life and age. Results: Regarding risky sexual behaviors, the presented model: an adequate fit; explains 31% of the variance; reported direct effect of: sexual health education, school sexual education, emotional expression at school, sexual relations for love of the partner, partner abuse, alcohol consumption, beginning of sexual life, number of sexual partners; and mediating effect of: emotional expression at school, sexual health education, and sexual relations for love of the couple. Conclusions: Adolescent sexual risk behaviors are explained with five factors of vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and three control variables. Future studies should occur in causal factors and mediators that strengthen the evidence of causality and in intervention on risky sexual behaviors controlling the predictor variables.

Revamping Teacher Training for Challenging Times: Teachers' Well-Being, Resilience, Emotional Intelligence, and Innovative Methodologies as Key Teaching Competencies.

Purpose: This study aimed to design, implement, and evaluate a teacher training program to improve the quality and innovation of teaching practice. The program was designed to protect teachers' mental health and well-being, and increase their resilience and emotional competence while introducing innovative educational methodologies. Participants and Methods: An experimental design using a control group and pre-/post-test empirical data was adopted to determine the effects of the 14-week teacher training program. The sample comprised 141 teachers with mean teaching experience of 13.1 years (SD = 6.84, 54.6% women). Results: The program had a positive impact on teacher well-being, resilience, emotional competence, and self-efficacy, linked to the innovative and effective teacher methodologies included in the training. Conclusion: More research is needed to expand on the findings and optimize teacher training implementation. The training provided in this study is evidence of the commitment to overcoming current educational framework challenges. The training contributes to teacher empowerment and provides knowledge, strategies, and resources for greater innovation and quality in the classroom - key to creating educational synergies for the emergence of stronger teachers in the face of adversity. We discuss future research directions for a better understanding of teacher training in the 21st century.

Validation of a Short Scale for Student Evaluation of Teaching Ratings in a Polytechnic Higher Education Institution.

The general purpose of this work is 2-fold, to validate scales and to present the methodological procedure to reduce these scales to validate a rating scale for the student evaluation of teaching in the context of a Polytechnic Higher Education Institution. We explored the relationship between the long and short versions of the scale; examine their invariance in relation to relevant variables such as gender. Data were obtained from a sample of 6,110 students enrolled in a polytechnic higher education institution, most of whom were male. Data analysis included descriptive analysis, intraclass correlation, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), confirmatory factorial analysis, correlations between the short and long form corrected for the shared error variance, gender measurement invariance, reliability using congeneric correlated factors, and correlations with academic achievement for the class as unit with an analysis following a multisection design. Results showed four highly correlated factors that do not exclude a general factor, with an excellent fit to data; configural, metric, and scalar gender measurement invariance; high reliability for both the long and short scale and subscales; high short and long-form scale correlations; and moderate but significant correlations between the long and short versions of the scales with academic performance, with individual and aggregate data collected from classes or sections. To conclude, this work shows the possibility of developing student evaluation of teaching scales with a short form scale, which maintains the same high reliability and validity indexes as the longer scale.

Validation of the Bar-On EQ-i: YV (S) Inventory in Its Spanish Version: Gender-Based Invariance Analysis.

The purpose of this work is to verify the factorial structure and analyze the reliability of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Youth Version (YV) (S) by evaluating emotional intelligence in a more extensive sample of Spanish adolescents than has been used to date, since this inventory has been employed in various studies but with a very limited number of participants. For this study, 5292 adolescents from all over Spain participated-male (51.2%) and female (48.8%) secondary education students between 11 and 19 years old, with an average age of 14.33. Data analysis included a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), reliability analysis, and model invariance as a function of gender. The CFA confirms that the data empirically support the theoretical model and that the goodness-of-fit indexes are adequate. The reliability analysis of the inventory presents a Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the total scale of 0.76, and reliability indexes for each of the factors range between 0.63 and 0.80. The findings show that the model indicates invariance related to gender.

Psychometric Properties of the Spanish Version of the Goal Orientation Scales in Ecuadorian Undergraduate Students.

The present study aims to analyze the psychometric properties of the Goal orientation Scales (GOS; Skaalvik, 1997) in a sample of 2,170 Ecuadorian undergraduate students (M = 21. 97, SD = 3.61; 61.6% female). The Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the four-factor structure of the GOS, and the scale exhibited an adequate factorial invariance for gender. The multidimensional Rasch analysis revealed that one item showed misfit, and the distribution of items did not correspond well with the levels of achievement goals. The current research addresses a formal gap related to the validation of the GOS in a Latin American country and provides advanced psychometric information to further improve the scale for its application to Spanish-speaking samples.

Teacher Training Can Make a Difference: Tools to Overcome the Impact of COVID-19 on Primary Schools. An Experimental Study.

Overcoming the impact of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) on primary schools is an emerging need and priority in the current social welfare system. Accordingly, this study presents an empirical learning package to support teachers, who perform frontline work in schools, in coping with stress, preventing burnout, improving their information and communications technology (ICT) competency, and introducing the principles of emotional intelligence (EI) in the classroom. The participants included 141 primary school teachers (M = 38.4 years, SD = 6.84; 54.6% women). They were randomly assigned to an experimental or control group. The experimental group participated in the 14-week teacher training program, whereas the control group did not participate in the program or receive any other training during the intervention. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (time x group) was performed to identify the effects of the teacher training program. Teachers who participated in the training program evaluated it positively and showed significant differences compared to the control group in their abilities to cope with stress and avoid burnout, their ICT competency, and their introduction of EI in the classroom. Implications for supporting teachers are discussed.

Students' Evaluation of Teaching and Their Academic Achievement in a Higher Education Institution of Ecuador.

This paper addresses the relationship between student evaluation of teaching (SET) and academic achievement in higher education. Meta-analytic studies on teaching effectiveness show a wide range of results, ranging from small to medium correlations between SET and student achievement, based on diverse methodological approaches, sample size studies, and contexts. This work aimed to relate SET, prior academic achievement, and academic achievement in a large sample of higher education students and teachers, using different methodological procedures, which consider as distinct units of analysis the group class and the individuals, the variability between students within classes, and the variability between group-class means, simultaneously. The data analysis included the calculation of group-class means and its relationship with the group-class mean academic achievement, through correlation and hierarchical regression techniques; additionally, a multilevel path analysis was applied to the relationship between prior academic achievement, SET, and their academic achievement, considering the variability among group classes. A multisection analysis was also carried out in those course disciplines in which there was more than one class group (section). The results of individual and group-class analysis revealed that SET was moderately low but related to academic achievement in a significant way once the effect of previous academic achievement was controlled. In addition, multilevel path analysis revealed the effect of SET on achievement, both within and between group-class levels. The results of the analysis carried out in the course disciplines with different sections, according to a multisection design, yielded similar results to the individual and aggregated data analyses. Taken together, the results revealed that SET was low related to academic achievement, once the effect of previous academic achievement was controlled. From these results, it follows that the use of SET as a measure of teachers' effectiveness for making administrative decisions remains controversial.

Differences in Personal, Familial, Social, and School Factors Between Underachieving and Non-underachieving Gifted Secondary Students.

Using various identification methods, differences between underachieving and non-underachieving gifted students in personal, familial, social, and school variables were analyzed in a sample of 164 gifted students with IQs of 120 or higher; the sample was drawn from a larger sample of 1,400 compulsory secondary education students. Three procedures for identifying underachieving students were used: the standardized difference method, the regression method, and the Rasch method. The different profiles of underachieving and non-underachieving students in the personal, familial, social, and school variables were compared using MANOVA and ANOVA tests. Results revealed that underachieving gifted students scored significantly lower in learning strategies, goal orientations, self-concept, attitudes toward teachers, and perceived parent involvement in school variables. These results have clear educational implications as a result of identifying differences in non-cognitive factors.

Can emotional intelligence be improved? A randomized experimental study of a business-oriented EI training program for senior managers.

PURPOSE: This article presents the results of a training program in emotional intelligence. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: Emotional Intelligence (EI) involves two important competencies: (1) the ability to recognize feelings and emotions in oneself and others, and (2) the ability to use that information to resolve conflicts and problems to improve interactions with others. We provided a 30-hour Training Course on Emotional Intelligence (TCEI) for 54 senior managers of a private company. A pretest-posttest design with a control group was adopted. FINDINGS: EI assessed using mixed and ability-based measures can be improved after training. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: The study's results revealed that EI can be improved within business environments. Results and implications of including EI training in professional development plans for private organizations are discussed.

Relationship between parent involvement and academic achievement through metacognitive strategies: A multiple multilevel mediation analysis.

BACKGROUND: Different studies reveal an association between parent involvement, metacognition, and academic achievement; however, the majority analyse the developmental process of acquisition in experimental or quasi-experimental designs with students enrolled in child education. Adolescence is an important stage in personal and academic development. Given the complexity of learning, and according to the metacognitive and affective model of self-regulated learning (Efklides, 2011, Educational Psychologist, 46, 6), different types of metacognitive processes are relevant for the optimal development of individuals in academic contexts. At the same time, individuals need stimuli from the environment, based on observation of their own and other's behaviour, as well as through communication and interaction with others. AIM: The present study examined the relations among parent involvement, metacognitive strategies, and academic achievement to investigate the mediational role of metacognition in the relation between parent involvement and academic achievement. SAMPLE: The participants were 1,398 high school students from Spain (47% female, M = 12. 5 years). METHOD: Multiple multilevel mediation analyses with Monte Carlo confidence intervals were used for measuring within-subjects effects at the student level and between-subjects effects at the class level. Parent involvement (perception of support, organization, and interest in the educational process; expectations; school relationship; time of support with homework) and metacognition were measured by questionnaires, whereas academic achievement was assessed using the end-of-term grades obtained by students for nine subjects. RESULTS: First, there was a significant direct effect of most parent involvement constructs on the mediational and dependent variables at both the within and between levels. Expectations had the highest predictive power on academic achievement. On the other hand, metacognitive strategies were an important mediator for all parent involvement constructs at both levels of analysis. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the importance of metacognition during early adolescence and suggest that parent involvement is crucial for the future development of educational models.

Can Emotional Competence Be Taught in Higher Education? A Randomized Experimental Study of an Emotional Intelligence Training Program Using a Multimethodological Approach.

Since the introduction of the Bologna Process, the goal of education has been not only to acquire technical skills but also to master other skills, such as teamwork, effective communication skills, time optimization, and the ability to manage one's emotions. The present work describes a program to develop emotional intelligence in higher education, the "Emotional Intelligence Training Program," with a multimethodological approach that offers the opportunity for university students to develop their emotional intelligence. A total of 192 higher education students participated in this educational experience. Of the participants, 66% were women, and 34% were men; the average age of the sample was 18.83 years with a standard deviation of 2.73. The results indicate that our program can help improve emotional intelligence through three proposed methodologies: online, in the classroom, and coaching. It has been demonstrated that the program is effective in the three methodological modalities presented, offering a range of possibilities to future users because it is possible to select the most appropriate modality based on the resources and possibilities available in each situation. Finally, Future research should focus on the application of this program to assess the acquisition of emotional competences at the postgraduate level.

Validation of the Spanish adaptation of the School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised using multidimensional Rasch analysis / Validación de la adaptación española del School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised mediante el modelo de Rasch multidimensional

The School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised (SAAS-R) was developed by McCoach and Siegle (2003b) and validated in Spain by Miñano, Castejón, and Gilar (2014) using Classical Test Theory. The objective of the current research is to validate SAAS-R using multidimensional Rasch analysis. Data were collected from 1398 students attending different high schools. Principal Component Analysis supported the multidimensional SAAS-R. The item difficulty and person ability were calibrated along the same latent trait scale. 10 items were removed from the scale due to misfit with the Rasch model. Differential Item Functioning revealed no significant differences across gender for the remaining 25 items. The 7- category rating scale structure did not function well, and the subscale goal valuation obtained low reliability values. The multidimensional Rasch model supported 25 item-scale SAAS-R measures from five latent factors. Therefore, the advantages of multidimensional Rasch analysis are demonstrated in this study

Validación de la adaptación española del School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised mediante el modelo de Rasch multidimensional. Resumen: El School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised (SAAS-R) fue desarrollado por McCoach y Siegle (2003b) y validado en España por Mi- ñano, Castejón, y Gilar (2014) a través del Modelo Clásico de Test. El objetivo del presente estudio es validar el SAAS-R a partir del análisis de Rasch Multidimensional. Los datos se obtuvieron de 1398 estudiantes que asistían a diferentes institutos de Educación Secundaria. El Análisis de Componentes Principales apoyó el modelo Rasch multidimensional. Se calibraron los parámetros de dificultad de los ítems y habilidad de los sujetos a partir de la misma escala latente. Se eliminaron 10 ítems por mostrar desajuste al modelo de Rasch. El Funcionamiento Diferencial del Ítem no mostró diferencias significativas de género con los 25 ítems restantes. La estructura escalar de 7 categorías no mostró un funcionamiento óptimo, y la subescala Valoración de Logro obtuvo niveles bajos de fiabilidad. El modelo Rasch multidimensional apoyó la escala SAAS-R con 25 ítems y 5 factores latentes. De esta forma, se demuestran las ventajas del modelo de Rasch multidimensional en el presente estudio

Estimation of the Proportion of Underachieving Students in Compulsory Secondary Education in Spain: An Application of the Rasch Model.

There are very few studies in Spain that treat underachievement rigorously, and those that do are typically related to gifted students. The present study examined the proportion of underachieving students using the Rasch measurement model. A sample of 643 first-year high school students (mean age = 12.09; SD = 0.47) from 8 schools in the province of Alicante (Spain) completed the Battery of Differential and General Skills (Badyg), and these students' General Points Average (GPAs) were recovered by teachers. Dichotomous and Partial credit Rasch models were performed. After adjusting the measurement instruments, the individual underachievement index provided a total sample of 181 underachieving students, or 28.14% of the total sample across the ability levels. This study confirms that the Rasch measurement model can accurately estimate the construct validity of both the intelligence test and the academic grades for the calculation of underachieving students. Furthermore, the present study constitutes a pioneer framework for the estimation of the prevalence of underachievement in Spain.

Academic Achievement in Early Adolescence: The Influence of Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Variables.

The present study examined the predictive effects of intellectual ability, self-concept, goal orientations, learning strategies, popularity and parent involvement on academic achievement. Hierarchical regression analysis and path analysis were performed among a sample of 1398 high school students (mean age = 12.5; SD =.67) from eight education centers from the province of Alicante (Spain). Cognitive and non-cognitive variables were measured using validated questionnaires, whereas academic achievement was assessed using end-of-term grades obtained by students in nine subjects. The results revealed significant predictive effects of all of the variables. The model proposed had a satisfactory fit, and all of the hypothesized relationships were significant. These findings support the importance of including non-cognitive variables along with cognitive variables when predicting a model of academic achievement.

Individual differences in predicting occupational success: the effect of population heterogeneity / Diferencias individuales en la predicción del éxito ocupacional: el efecto de la heterogeneidad de la población

Using a sample of 339 university graduates from the University of Alicante (Spain) three years after completion of their studies, we studied the relationships between general intelligence (GI), personality traits, emotional intelligence (EI), academic performance, and occupational attainment and compared the results of conventional regression analysis with the results obtained from applying regression mixture models. The results reveal the influence of unobserved population heterogeneity (latent class) on the relationship between predictors and criteria and the improvement in the prediction obtained from applying regression mixture models compared to applying a conventional regression model (AU)

Mediante una muestra de 339 graduados universitarios de la Universidad de Alicante, España, tres años después de acabar los estudios, hemos estudiado la relación entre inteligencia general (IG), rasgos de personalidad, inteligencia emocional (IE), rendimiento académico y consecución de empleo, comparando los resultados del análisis de regresión tradicional con los resultados obtenidos aplicando los modelos mixtos de regresión. Los resultados muestran la influencia de una heterogeneidad poblacional no observada (clase latente) en la relación entre predictores y criterios y la mejoría en la predicción a partir de la aplicación de los modelos mixtos de regresión en comparación con la aplicación del modelo convencional de regresión (AU)

Perceived emotional intelligence, general intelligence and early professional success: predictive and incremental validity / Inteligencia emocional percibida, inteligencia general y éxito profesional en el inicio de la carrera: validez predictiva e incremental

Although the study of factors affecting career success has shown connections between biographical and other aspects related to ability, knowledge and personality, few studies have examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and professional success at the initial career stage. When these studies were carried out, the results showed significant relationships between the dimensions of emotional intelligence (emotional self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness or social skills) and the level of professional competence. In this paper, we analyze the relationship between perceived emotional intelligence, measured by the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) questionnaire, general intelligence assessed by the Cattell factor "g" test, scale 3, and extrinsic indicators of career success, in a sample of 130 graduates at the beginning of their careers. Results from hierarchical regression analysis indicate that emotional intelligence makes a specific contribution to the prediction of salary, after controlling the general intelligence effect. The perceived emotional intelligence dimensions of TMMS repair, TMMS attention and sex show a higher correlation and make a greater contribution to professional success than general intelligence. The implications of these results for the development of socio-emotional skills among University graduates are discussed

Aunque en el estudio de los factores que afectan al éxito profesional, se han establecido conexiones entre aspectos biográficos y otros relacionados con la capacidad, los conocimientos o la personalidad, no abundan trabajos que demuestren la relación entre la inteligencia emocional y las dimensiones de éxito profesional al inicio de la carrera profesional. Cuando estos se han realizado, los resultados han mostrado relaciones significativas entre las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional e indicadores de éxito profesional (como el salario o el nivel del puesto). En el presente trabajo, se analizan las relaciones entre la inteligencia emocional percibida, medida mediante el cuestionario Trait Meta-Mood Scale (MMS-24), la inteligencia general, evaluada mediante prueba de factor "g" de Cattell, escala 3, e indicadores extrínsecos de éxito profesional, en una muestra de 130 egresados universitarios que se encuentran en el inicio de su carrera profesional. Los resultados obtenidos en el análisis de regresión jerárquica, indican que la inteligencia emocional realiza una contribución específica y significativa a la predicción del salario, una vez controlado el efecto de la inteligencia gene-ral. Las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional percibida TMMS control y TMMS atención, junto con el sexo, muestran una relación mayor con el éxito profesional y realizan una mayor contribución a la predicción del mismo que la inteligencia general. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados para la formación futura en competencias socioemocionales a los titulados universitarios

Un modelo estructural de variables cognitivo-motivacionales explicativas del rendimiento académico en Lengua Española y Matemáticas / A structural model of cognitive-motivational variables as explanatory factors of academic achievement in Spanish Language and Mathematics

En los últimos años se vienen desarrollando diversos modelos explicativos que tratan de analizar el valor predictivo de distintos factores en relación al rendimiento escolar, así como los efectos directos e indirectos que se producen entre ellos. Nuestro objetivo es contrastar un modelo estructural que integra algunas variables de tipo cognitivo y motivacional que influyen en el rendimiento de los alumnos en las dos áreas instrumentales básicas de nuestro curriculo: Lengua Española y Matemáticas. Entre estas variables incluimos las aptitudes diferenciales, el autoconcepto específico, las orientaciones de meta, el esfuerzo y las estrategias de aprendizaje. La muestra está compuesta por 341 alumnos españoles de primer curso de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria. Empleamos distintas pruebas y cuestionarios para la evaluación cada una de ellas y aplicamos SEM para contrastar las relaciones del modelo inicial. El modelo propuesto obtiene un ajuste satisfactorio en las dos áreas estudiadas, siendo significativas la totalidad de las relaciones hipotetizadas. La aptitud matemática y verbal es la variable con mayor poder explicativo sobre el rendimiento académico. También destaca la influencia directa del autoconcepto específico sobre el rendimiento, las orientaciones de meta y el esfuerzo, así como la capacidad mediadora del esfuerzo y de las estrategias de aprendizaje entre las metas académicas y el rendimiento final (AU)

In recent years, several explanatory models have been developed which attempt to analyse the predictive worth of various factors in relation to academic achievement, as well as the direct and indirect effects that they produce. The aim of this study was to examine a structural model incorporating various cognitive and motivational variables which influence student achievement in the two basic core skills in the Spanish curriculum: Spanish Language and Mathematics. These variables included differential aptitudes, specific self-concept, goal orientations, effort and learning strategies. The sample comprised 341 Spanish students in their first year of Compulsory Secondary Education. Various tests and questionnaires were used to assess each student, and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was employed to study the relationships in the initial model. The proposed model obtained a satisfactory fit for the two subjects studied, and all the relationships hypothesised were significant. The variable with the most explanatory power regarding academic achievement was mathematical and verbal aptitude. Also notable was the direct influence of specific self-concept on achievement, goal-orientation and effort, as was the mediatory effect that effort and learning strategies had between academic goals and final achievement (AU)