Coastal dunes as drivers of genetic differentiation in the honeypot ant Myrmecocystus baja (Formicidae: Formicinae).

Coastal dunes are unique habitats, threatened by human activities. In biogeographical terms, coastal dunes are habitat islands, being discrete and distinct patches of similar habitat among themselves, separated from each other by a different type of habitat. Furthermore, coastal dunes harbor endemic species, adapted to living solely in the habitats found on specific dune systems. For example, the honeypot ant Myrmecocystus baja is endemic and restricted to coastal dunes of Mexico's Baja California Pacific coast. This ecological and biogeographical scenario led to the questions whether their geographical isolation is reflected in their genetic diversity and structuring, and how their demographic history is related with the formation of the dune system habitats. To answer these questions, population genetic, isolation-with-migration, and phylogeographical analyses were carried out, based on mitochondrial and five nuclear intronic markers. Minimal gene flow was detected only between two of the dune systems sampled; otherwise, the M. baja populations were found to be isolated and genetically structured, and their divergence generally pre-dated the modern-day dune systems. It is therefore highly likely that these ants were already present in paleodunes and that each of the populations was established from founder populations as the dunes formed. These findings highlight the importance of coastal dunes for species such as the honeypot ant from Baja California, in promoting genetic differentiation.

Retention rate of abatacept in rheumatoid arthritis patients in a real-life setting: results from a monocentric cohort.

OBJECTIVE: Data from trials demonstrated that abatacept (ABA) has a good safety and efficacy profile in treating rheumatoid arthritis. We have studied the retention rate of ABA in a real-life cohort of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. METHODS: This is a monocentric, retrospective study including patients with rheumatoid arthritis classified by the American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism 2010 criteria who started treatment with ABA. The Kaplan-Meier method was applied to evaluate the ABA retention rate. RESULTS: This analysis was conducted on 161 patients [male/female 21/140, median age 65 years, interquartile range (IQR) 18.7, median disease duration 169 months, IQR 144.0]. 111 patients (68.9%) received ABA subcutaneously. ABA was associated with methotrexate in 61.9% of patients and was the first biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drug in 41%. We observed a median ABA survival of 66 months [95% confidence interval (CI) 57.3-74.7], with a retention rate of 88% at 6 months and 50.9% at 5 years. Drug survival was significantly higher in patients treated with ABA subcutaneously and in male patients (p=0.039 and p=0.018, respectively). Adjusted for main confounders, female gender was the main predictor of withdrawal (hazard ratio 5.1, 95% CI 1.2-21.3). CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that better survival is associated with subcutaneous administration and male gender, confirming ABA effectiveness.

Integrative taxonomy of Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. (Acanthocephala: Isthmosacanthidae) from flatfishes in the Gulf of Mexico.

The Isthmosacanthidae acanthocephalan species of the genus Serrasentis are parasites of marine teleosts and an elasmobranch. In this study, Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. is described from the intestines of four flatfish species (Paralichthyidae), namely Ancyclopsetta quadrocellata, Cyclopsetta chittendeni, Syacium gunteri, and S. papillosum from 10 oceanic sites in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Twenty sequences of the 'barcoding' region of cytochrome C oxidase subunit I gene were obtained from 20 adults of Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. Additionally, five sequences of the barcoding region were obtained from five adults of rhadinorhynchid Gorgorhynchus lepidus from C. chittendeni, S. papillosum and one species of Haemulidae, Haemulom aurolineatum, from five oceanic sites from the GoM. Two phylogenetic approaches were followed: Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood. In both phylogenetic reconstructions, the sequences of Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. were recovered as a monophyletic group within the genus Serrasentis and placed as a sister group to G. lepidus. However, due to the lack of molecular data for species of the Isthmosacanthidae and Rhadinorhynchidea, these phylogenetic inferences must be taken with caution. Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. is the first species of Serrasentis described from Paralichthyidae flatfish species from marine waters of the Americas and from the GoM. Based on the barcoding data set analyzed, Serrasentis gibsoni n. sp. appears to have high intraspecific genetic variation; thus, it is necessary to continue exploring the genetic diversity of this species to infer its intraspecific evolutionary patterns.

Following the aridity: Historical biogeography and diversification of the Philodromidae spider genus Petrichus in South America.

Aridity conditions and expansion of arid biomes in South America are closely linked to the onset of Andean orogeny since at least 30 Mya. Among arid-associated taxa, spiders belonging to the genus Petrichus are found along the Andes mountains and across the diagonal of open formations of the Chaco and Cerrado domains. In this contribution, we asked whether Petrichus originated prior to the central Andean uplift and what historical processes have promoted their diversification. We time-calibrated the phylogenetic tree of Philodromidae and estimated the divergence times of Petrichus. Considering phylogenetic uncertainty, we assessed biogeographical hypotheses of the historical events associated with the diversification of these spiders in South America. Petrichus originated along the Pacific coastal deserts in the Central Andes during the Early Miocene. The species likely dispersed from the western to the eastern side of the Andes coincidently with the central Andean uplift. The diversification of these spiders is coeval with the expansion of open grassland formations during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene. Multiple dispersal events occurred from the Monte desert to southern South America and eastward to Chaco between âˆ¼ 8 and 2.5 Mya. The Andes might have played a role as a corridor favoring geographical range expansions and colonization of new environments. In addition, we also suggest that Philodromidae might have an Oligocene origin or earlier. Future analyses based on further evidence and larger taxon sampling should be carried out to corroborate our findings.

Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and their experience with vaccination against COVID-19: a descriptive and explanatory study.

Not available.

Tofacitinib Decreases Autophagy of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes From Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients.

The pathway of Janus tyrosine kinases (JAKs) has a central role in the pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) by regulating multiple immune functions and cytokine production. The JAK inhibitor tofacitinib is effective in RA patients not responding to methotrexate or TNF-inhibitors. Since hyperactive autophagy has been associated with impaired apoptosis of RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), we aimed to investigate the role of tofacitinib in modulating autophagy and apoptosis in these cells. FLS isolated from RA biopsies were cultured with tofacitinib in presence of autophagy inducer rapamycin and in serum deprivation condition. Levels of autophagy, apoptosis, and citrullinated proteins were analyzed by western blot, flow cytometry, immunocytofluorescence, and Real-Time PCR. Rapamycin induced an increase in RA-FLS autophagy while the levels of autophagy marker LC3-II were reduced after in vitro treatment with tofacitinib. The analysis of autophagic flux by specific fluorescence dye confirmed the reduction of autophagy in RA FLS. The treatment with tofacitinib did not influence apoptosis of RA FLS. Modulation of the autophagic process by tofacitinib did not significantly change citrullination. The results of this study demonstrate that tofacitinib is able to modulate autophagy of FLS contributing to its effectiveness in RA patients.

Hallux valgus associated to osteoarthritis: Clinical-radiological outcomes of modified SERI technique at mid- to long-term follow-up. A retrospective analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment of hallux valgus deformity associated with mild or moderate osteoarthritis (OA) is still a topic of debate. In the literature, there are few studies concerning the management of patients affected by this condition. This study aims to report the experience at mid- to long-term results of an original joint-preserving surgical technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients affected by mild to moderate hallux valgus deformity and associated to grade 1-2 OA and treated with modified Simple-Effective-Rapid-Inexpensive (SERI) technique from 2008 to 2018 were selected. Inclusion criteria were mild or moderate hallux valgus angle (HVA) <40° and an intermetatarsal angle (IMA) <20° and associated grade 1-2 OA of the first metatarso-phalangeal joint (MTPJ). RESULTS: 128 feet in 120 consecutive patients, undergone modified SERI procedure, have been retrospectively reviewed at a mean follow-up of 5.1 ± 3.8 years (range 2-11). American Orthopaedics Foot Ankle Society (AOFAS) score that was significantly improved from 44.2 ± 13.2 to 88.2 ± 9.6. Pre-operative average HVA and IMA values decreased respectively from 31.6° ± 3.9° to 9.1° ± 4.4° and from 16.2° ± 3.8° to 7.2° ± 3.1°. The average distal metatarsal articular angle (DMAA) value improved from 28.2° ± 6.5° to 7.1° ± 6°. OA of the first MTPJ highlighted a grade 1 in 46 feet and a grade 2 in 82 feet pre-operatively and a grade 0 in 30 feet, grade 1 in 82 feet, and grade 2 in 16 feet at the final follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The modifications to the SERI technique could extend the indications to patients affected by hallux valgus with mild to moderate OA. The wider case series and the longer follow-up of this study make us believe this technique is very useful for improving the quality of life in these patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of mud-bath therapy on knee osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Osteoarthritis (OA) results from loss of cartilage in-tegrity in association with changes to the structure of the entire joint. Treatment of OA is based on different pharmaceutical and no phar-maceutical approaches and the latter include the use of spa-therapy. The biological effects of mud-bath therapy are mainly secondary to heat stimulation and to physic-chemical properties of mineral waters and mud-packs. Mud-bath therapy likely exerts its effects modulating several cytokines and other molecules involved in inflammation and cartilage degradation. Our aim was to perform an updated meta-analysis of the effectiveness of the mud-bath therapy on knee osteoarthritis and briefly to discuss the mechanisms of action of this treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A MEDLINE on PubMed for articles on knee OA and spa therapy published from 1995 through up to April 2019 was performed. Then, we checked the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials to find additional references included up to April 2019. Articles were included if in accordance with the eligibility cri-teria. Sample size and effect sizes were processed with the MedCalc software package. RESULTS: Twenty one studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in meta-analysis. We examined WOMAC Index and VAS pain. We found significant improvements in function scores and painful symptoms after mud-bath therapy in patients with knee joint osteoarthritis. CONCLUSIONS: Spa therapy is a non-drug treatment modalities, non invasive, complication-free, and cost-effective alternative modality for the conservative treatment of knee osteoarthritis. It cannot substitute for conventional therapy but can integrated or alternated to it. Treatment with mud-bath therapy may relieve pain, stiffness and improve functio-nal status in patients with knee OA.

Testing the Accuracy of Vegetation-Based Ecoregions for Predicting the Species Composition of Blow Flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

To properly define ecoregions, specific criteria such as geology, climate, or species composition (e.g., the presence of endemic species) must be taken into account to understand distribution patterns and resolve ecological biogeography questions. Since the studies on insects in Baja California are scarce, and no fine-scale ecoregions based on the region's entomofauna is available, this study was designed to test whether the ecoregions based on vegetation can be used for insects, such as Calliphoridae. Nine collecting sites distributed along five ecoregions were selected, between latitudes 29.6° and 32.0°N. In each site, three baited traps were used to collect blow flies from August 2017 to June 2019 during summer, winter, and spring. A total of 30,307 individuals of blow flies distributed in six genera and 13 species were collected. The most abundant species were Cochliomyia macellaria (Fabricius), Phormia regina (Meigen), and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart). The composition of the Calliphoridae community was different between the localities and three general groups have been distinguished, based on the species composition similarity (ANOSIM) results: Gulf-Desert, Mountains, and Pacific-Center. The vegetation-based ecoregions only reflect the blow fly species' distributions to a certain extent, meaning that care must be taken when undertaking ecological biogeographical studies using regionalization based on organisms other than the focal taxa because vegetation does not always reflect fauna species composition.

Phylogeny, genetics, and the partial life cycle of Oncomegas wageneri in the Gulf of Mexico.

Despite the diversity and ecological importance of cestodes, there is a paucity of studies on their life stages (i.e., complete lists of intermediate, paratenic, and definitive hosts) and genetic variation. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) 98 species of cestodes have been reported to date; however, data on their intraspecific genetic variation and population genetic studies are lacking. The trypanorhynch cestode, Oncomegas wageneri, is found (among other places) off the American Western Atlantic Coast, including the GoM, and has been reported as an adult from stingrays and from several teleost species in its larval form (as plerocerci). This study represents the first report of 2 previously unregistered definitive hosts for O. wageneri, namely the Atlantic sharpnose shark Rhizoprionodon terraenovae and the southern stingray Hypanus americanus. In this work, partial sequences of the 28S (region D1-D2) ribosomal DNA were analyzed to include O. wageneri within an eutetrarhynchoid phylogenetic framework. All O. wageneri individuals (which included plerocerci and adults) were recovered as monophyletic and Oncomegas celatus was identified as the sister species of O. wageneri. Furthermore, population genetic analyses of O. wageneri from the southern GoM were carried out using DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene, which reflected high genetic variation and a lack of genetic structure among the 9 oceanographic sampling sites. Based on these results, O. wageneri is panmictic in the southern GoM. More extensive sampling along the species entire distribution is necessary to make more accurate inferences of population genetics of O. wageneri.

TNFAIP3 Gene Polymorphisms in Three Common Autoimmune Diseases: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Primary Sjogren Syndrome-Association with Disease Susceptibility and Clinical Phenotypes in Italian Patients.

Autoimmune diseases (AIDs) are complex diseases characterized by persistent or recurrent inflammation, alteration of immune response, and production of specific autoantibodies. It is known that different AIDs share several susceptibility genetic loci. Tumor necrosis factor alpha inducible protein 3 (TNFAIP3) encodes the ubiquitin-modifying enzyme A20, which downregulates inflammation by restricting NF-κB, a transcription factor that regulates expression of various proinflammatory genes. Variants in TNFAIP3 gene have been described as associated with susceptibility to several AIDs. Here, we analyzed two TNFAIP3 polymorphisms in Italian patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and primary Sjogren's syndrome (pSS), to verify if the genetic variability of TNFAIP3 gene is involved in genetic predisposition to AIDs also in the Italian population. We recruited 313 SLE patients, 256 RA patients, 195 pSS patients, and 236 healthy controls. Genotyping of rs2230926 and rs6920220 in TNFAIP3 gene was performed by an allelic discrimination assay. We carried out a case/control association study and a genotype/phenotype correlation analysis. A higher risk to develop SLE was observed for rs2230926 (P = 0.02, OR = 1.92). No association was observed between this SNP and the susceptibility to pSS or RA. However, the rs2230926 variant allele seems to confer a higher risk to develop lymphoma in pSS patients, while in RA patients, the presence of RF resulted significantly associated with the variant allele. Regarding the rs6920220 SNP, we observed a significant association of the variant allele with SLE (P = 0.03, OR = 1.53), pSS (P = 0.016, OR = 1.69), and RA (P = 0.0001, OR = 2.35) susceptibility. Furthermore, SLE patients carrying the variant allele showed a higher risk to develop pericarditis, pleurisy, and kidney complications. Our results support the importance of the TNFAIP3 gene variant role in the development of different autoimmune diseases in the Italian population and furtherly confirm a sharing of genetic predisposing factors among these three pathologies.

Anti-D4GDI antibodies activate platelets in vitro: a possible link with thrombocytopenia in primary antiphospholipid syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Thrombocytopenia is a manifestation associated with primary antiphospholipid syndrome (PAPS), and many studies have stressed the leading role played by platelets in the pathogenesis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Platelets are highly specialized cells, and their activation involves a series of rapid rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton. Recently, we described the presence of autoantibodies against D4GDI (Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor beta, ARHGDIB) in the serum of a large subset of SLE patients, and we observed that anti-D4GDI antibodies activated the cytoskeleton remodeling of lymphocytes by inhibiting D4GDI and allowing the upregulation of Rho GTPases, such as Rac1. Proteomic and transcriptomic studies indicate that D4GDI is very abundant in platelets, and small GTPases of the RHO family are critical regulators of actin dynamics in platelets. METHODS: We enrolled 38 PAPS patients, 15 patients carrying only antiphospholipid antibodies without clinical criteria of APS (aPL carriers) and 20 normal healthy subjects. Sera were stored at - 20 °C to perform an ELISA test to evaluate the presence of anti-D4GDI antibodies. Then, we purified autoantibodies anti-D4GDI from patient sera. These antibodies were used to conduct in vitro studies on platelet activation. RESULTS: We identified anti-D4GDI antibodies in sera from 18/38 (47%) patients with PAPS, in sera from 2/15(13%) aPL carriers, but in no sera from normal healthy subjects. Our in vitro results showed a significant 30% increase in the activation of integrin αIIbß3 upon stimulation of platelets from healthy donors preincubated with the antibody anti-D4GDI purified from the serum of APS patients. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we show here that antibodies anti-D4GDI are present in the sera of PAPS patients and can prime platelet activation, explaining, at least in part, the pro-thrombotic state and the thrombocytopenia of PAPS patients. These findings may lead to improved diagnosis and treatment of APS.

Climate change and forest plagues: assessing current and future impacts of diprionid sawflies on the pine forests of north-western Mexico.

The imminent threat of climate change lies in its potential to disrupt the balance of ecosystems, particularly vulnerable areas such as mountain-top remnant forests. An example of such a fragile ecosystem is the Sierra San Pedro Mártir (SSPM) National Park of Mexico's Baja California state, where high levels of endemism can be found, and which is home to one of the country's few populations of the emblematic Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi). Recent outbreaks of pine-feeding sawfly larvae in SSPM increase the vulnerability of this forest ecosystem, calling for immediate assessments of the severity of this threat. Here, we present a thorough study of the sawfly's biology and distribution, carrying out molecular and morphology-based identification of the species and creating model-based predictions of the species distribution in the area. The sawfly was found to belong to an undescribed species of the genus Zadiprion (family Diprionidae) with a one-year life-cycle. The distribution of this species appears to be restricted to the SSPM national park and it will probably persist for at least another 50 years, even considering the effects of climate change.

CD44v3 and CD44v6 isoforms on T cells are able to discriminate different disease activity degrees and phenotypes in systemic lupus erythematosus patients.

BACKGROUND: Adhesion molecule CD44 contributes to T cell migration into target organs. A higher expression of CD44v3 and v6 isoforms has been identified on T cells from systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of CD44v3/v6 on T cells of SLE patients in order to evaluate their correlation with clinical features. METHODS: Sixteen healthy subjects (HSs) and 33 SLE female patients were enrolled. Fifteen patients were in remission (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index-2000 (SLEDAI-2K) = 0) and 18 patients had an active disease (SLEDAI-2K ≥ 4). Experiments were conducted by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Expression of CD44v3 on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was higher in active patients compared to HSs ( p = 0.0097 and p = 0.0096). CD44v3 on CD8+ T cells was also higher in active patients compared to patients in remission ( p = 0.038). CD44v6 was higher on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from active patients compared to HSs ( p = 0.003 and p = 0.0036) and to patients in remission ( p = 0.01 and p = 0.02). In active patients the ratio CD44v3/v6 was unbalanced towards isoform v6 on both T cell populations. In a receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, CD44v6 on CD4+ T cells was the most sensitive and specific one (specificity of 81.8%, sensitivity of 75%). Expression of CD44v6 on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells correlated with the SLEDAI-2K ( p = 0.03, r = 0.38 and p = 0.02, r = 0.39). CD44v6 and CD44v3 on CD8+ T cells associated with nephritis and arthritis ( p = 0.047 and p = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: CD44v3/v6 can be used as biomarkers of disease activity and phenotypes; isoform v6 on CD4+ T cells can be useful as a diagnostic biomarker.

Usefulness of composite indices in the assessment of joint involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: correlation with ultrasonographic score.

Specific indices are not available to evaluate systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) joint involvement; indeed, the application of indices validated for rheumatoid arthritis has been suggested. We evaluated the usefulness of organ specific composite indices, i.e. the Disease Activity Score on 28 joints (DAS28), Simplified Disease Activity Index (SDAI), Clinical Disease Activity Index (CDAI), and the ratio of swollen to tender joints (STR), to assess SLE joint activity by analyzing the correlation between these indices and ultrasonography (US) inflammatory status. We evaluated SLE patients with arthralgia and/or arthritis: the above-mentioned indices were calculated and the SLE Disease Activity Index 2000 (SLEDAI-2k) was applied to assess global disease activity. US of I-V metacarpophalangeal, I-V proximal interphalangeal, wrist, and knee bilateral was performed. Synovial effusion/hypertrophy and power Doppler findings were scored according to a semi-quantitative scale (0-3) to obtain an inflammatory total score (0-216). One hundred and six patients (M/F 7/99, median age 49.5 years (IQR 17.0), median disease duration 8.5 years (IQR 17.0)) were enrolled. We identified a positive correlation between US score and DAS28-CRP ( r = 0.3, p = 0.007), STR ( r = 0.42, p = 0.0005), SDAI ( r = 0.33, p = 0.02), CDAI ( r = 0.29, p = 0.03); US score reflected different levels of clinimetric joint activity. In conclusion, we suggest the ability of composite indices in detecting SLE joint inflammation and their possible real-life use.

Reduction of autophagy and increase in apoptosis correlates with a favorable clinical outcome in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with anti-TNF drugs.

BACKGROUND: Autophagy has emerged as a key mechanism in the survival and function of T and B lymphocytes, and its activation was involved in apoptosis resistance in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). To investigate whether the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis may impact the response to the therapy, we analyzed ex vivo spontaneous autophagy and apoptosis in patients with RA subjected to treatment with anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) drugs and in vitro the effects of TNFα and anti-TNF drugs on cell fate. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 25 RA patients treated with anti-TNF drugs were analyzed for levels of autophagy marker LC3-II by western blot and for the percentage of annexin V-positive apoptotic cells by flow cytometry. The same techniques were used to assess autophagy and apoptosis after in vitro treatment with TNFα and etanercept in both PBMCs and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) from patients with RA. RESULTS: PBMCs from patients with RA responsive to treatment showed a significant reduction in LC3-II levels, associated with an increased apoptotic activation after 4 months of therapy with anti-TNF drugs. Additionally, the expression of LC3-II correlated with DAS28. TNFα was able to induce autophagy in a dose-dependent manner after 24 h of culture in RA PBMCs and FLS. Moreover, etanercept caused a significant reduction of autophagy and of levels of citrullinated proteins. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show how the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis can sustain the survival of immune cells, thus influencing RA progression. This suggests that inhibition of autophagy represents a possible therapeutic target in RA.

The Grass was Greener: Repeated Evolution of Specialized Morphologies and Habitat Shifts in Ghost Spiders Following Grassland Expansion in South America.

While grasslands, one of Earth's major biomes, are known for their close evolutionary ties with ungulate grazers, these habitats are also paramount to the origins and diversification of other animals. Within the primarily South American spider subfamily Amaurobioidinae (Anyphaenidae), several species are found living in the continent's grasslands, with some displaying putative morphological adaptations to dwelling unnoticed in the grass blades. Herein, a dated molecular phylogeny provides the backbone for analyses revealing the ecological and morphological processes behind these spiders' grassland adaptations. The multiple switches from Patagonian forests to open habitats coincide with the expansion of South America's grasslands during the Miocene, while the specialized morphology of several grass-dwelling spiders originated at least three independent times and is best described as the result of different selective regimes operating on macroevolutionary timescales. Although grass-adapted lineages evolved towards different peaks in adaptive landscape, they all share one characteristic: an anterior narrowing of the prosoma allowing spiders to extend the first two pairs of legs, thus maintaining a slender resting posture in the grass blade. By combining phylogenetic, morphological, and biogeographic perspectives we disentangle multiple factors determining the evolution of a clade of terrestrial invertebrate predators alongside their biomes.

Microparticles and autophagy: a new frontier in the understanding of atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis.

Microparticles (MPs) are small membrane vesicles released by many cell types under physiological and pathological conditions. In the last years, these particles were considered as inert cell debris, but recently many studies have demonstrated they could have a role in intercellular communication. Increased levels of MPs have been reported in various pathological conditions including infections, malignancies, and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA is an autoimmune systemic inflammatory disease characterized by chronic synovial inflammation, resulting in cartilage and bone damage with accelerated atherosclerosis increasing mortality. According to the literature data, also MPs could have a role in endothelial dysfunction, contributing to atherosclerosis in RA patients. Moreover many researchers have shown that a dysregulated autophagy seems to be involved in endothelial dysfunction. Autophagy is a reparative process by which cytoplasmic components are sequestered in double-membrane vesicles and degraded on fusion with lysosomal compartments. It has been shown in many works that basal autophagy is essential to proper vascular function. Taking into account these considerations, we hypothesized that in RA patients MPs could contribute to atherosclerosis process by dysregulation of endothelial autophagy process.