Evaluation and Optimization of Pharmacokinetic Models for in Vitro to in Vivo Extrapolation of Estrogenic Activity for Environmental Chemicals.

BACKGROUND: To effectively incorporate in vitro data into regulatory use, confidence must be established in the quantitative extrapolation of in vitro activity to relevant end points in animals or humans. OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to evaluate and optimize in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) approaches using in vitro estrogen receptor (ER) activity to predict estrogenic effects measured in rodent uterotrophic studies. METHODS: We evaluated three pharmacokinetic (PK) models with varying complexities to extrapolate in vitro to in vivo dosimetry for a group of 29 ER agonists, using data from validated in vitro [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) ToxCast™ ER model] and in vivo (uterotrophic) methods. In vitro activity values were adjusted using mass-balance equations to estimate intracellular exposure via an enrichment factor (EF), and steady-state model calculations were adjusted using fraction of unbound chemical in the plasma ([Formula: see text]) to approximate bioavailability. Accuracy of each model-adjustment combination was assessed by comparing model predictions with lowest effect levels (LELs) from guideline uterotrophic studies. RESULTS: We found little difference in model predictive performance based on complexity or route-specific modifications. Simple adjustments, applied to account for in vitro intracellular exposure (EF) or chemical bioavailability ([Formula: see text]), resulted in significant improvements in the predictive performance of all models. CONCLUSION: Computational IVIVE approaches accurately estimate chemical exposure levels that elicit positive responses in the rodent uterotrophic bioassay. The simplest model had the best overall performance for predicting both oral (PPK_EF) and injection (PPK_[Formula: see text]) LELs from guideline uterotrophic studies, is freely available, and can be parameterized entirely using freely available in silico tools. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1655.

A Curated Database of Rodent Uterotrophic Bioactivity.

BACKGROUND: Novel in vitro methods are being developed to identify chemicals that may interfere with estrogen receptor (ER) signaling, but the results are difficult to put into biological context because of reliance on reference chemicals established using results from other in vitro assays and because of the lack of high-quality in vivo reference data. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)-validated rodent uterotrophic bioassay is considered the "gold standard" for identifying potential ER agonists. OBJECTIVES: We performed a comprehensive literature review to identify and evaluate data from uterotrophic studies and to analyze study variability. METHODS: We reviewed 670 articles with results from 2,615 uterotrophic bioassays using 235 unique chemicals. Study descriptors, such as species/strain, route of administration, dosing regimen, lowest effect level, and test outcome, were captured in a database of uterotrophic results. Studies were assessed for adherence to six criteria that were based on uterotrophic regulatory test guidelines. Studies meeting all six criteria (458 bioassays on 118 unique chemicals) were considered guideline-like (GL) and were subsequently analyzed. RESULTS: The immature rat model was used for 76% of the GL studies. Active outcomes were more prevalent across rat models (74% active) than across mouse models (36% active). Of the 70 chemicals with at least two GL studies, 18 (26%) had discordant outcomes and were classified as both active and inactive. Many discordant results were attributable to differences in study design (e.g., injection vs. oral dosing). CONCLUSIONS: This uterotrophic database provides a valuable resource for understanding in vivo outcome variability and for evaluating the performance of in vitro assays that measure estrogenic activity. CITATION: Kleinstreuer NC, Ceger PC, Allen DG, Strickland J, Chang X, Hamm JT, Casey WM. 2016. A curated database of rodent uterotrophic bioactivity. Environ Health Perspect 124:556-562; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510183.