Human prolidase and prolidase deficiency: an overview on the characterization of the enzyme involved in proline recycling and on the effects of its mutations.

Here we summarized what is known at the present about function, structure and effect of mutations in the human prolidase. Among the peptidases, prolidase is the only metalloenzyme that cleaves the iminodipeptides containing a proline or hydroxyproline residue at the C-terminal end. It is relevant in the latest stage of protein catabolism, particularly of those molecules rich in imino acids such as collagens, thus being involved in matrix remodelling. Beside its intracellular functions, prolidase has an antitoxic effect against some organophosphorus molecules, can be used in dietary industry as bitterness reducing agent and recently has been used as target enzyme for specific melanoma prodrug activation. Recombinant human prolidase was produced in prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts with biochemical properties similar to the endogenous enzyme and represents a valid tool both to better understand the structure and biological function of the enzyme and to develop an enzyme replacement therapy for the prolidase deficiency (PD). Prolidase deficiency is a rare recessive disorder caused by mutations in the prolidase gene and characterized by severe skin lesions. Single amino acid substitutions, exon splicing, deletions and a duplication were described as causative for the disease and are mainly located at highly conserved amino acids in the sequence of prolidase from different species. The pathophysiology of PD is still poorly understood; we offer here a review of the molecular mechanisms so far hypothesized.

Molecular characterisation of six patients with prolidase deficiency: identification of the first small duplication in the prolidase gene and of a mutation generating symptomatic and asymptomatic outcomes within the same family.

Prolidase deficiency (PD) is a rare autosomal recessive connective tissue disorder caused by mutations in the prolidase gene. The PD patients show a wide range of clinical outcomes characterised mainly by intractable skin ulcers, mental retardation and recurrent respiratory infections. Here we describe five different PEPD mutations in six European patients. We identified two new PEPD mutant alleles: a 13 bp duplication in exon 8, which is the first reported duplication in the prolidase gene and a point mutation resulting in a change in amino acid E412, a highly conserved residue among different species. The E412K substitution is responsible for the first reported phenotypic variability within a family with severe and asymptomatic outcomes.

Biodegradable microspheres for prolidase delivery to human cultured fibroblasts.

Prolidase deficiency (PD) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by inadequate levels of the cytosolic exopeptidase prolidase (E.C. 3.4.13.9), for which there is not, as yet, a resolutive cure. We have investigated whether biodegradable microspheres loaded with prolidase could release active enzyme inside cells, to consider this system as a possible therapeutic approach for prolidase deficiency. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres were prepared, modifying the classical double emulsion solvent evaporation method to mitigate the burst effect of the enzyme from the microspheres. Ex-vivo experiments were performed, by incubating microencapsulated prolidase with cultured fibroblasts from PD patients and from controls, to determine the amount of active enzyme delivered to the cells. The microparticulate drug delivery system described carried small amounts of active prolidase inside fibroblasts, ensuring a response to the intracellular accumulation of X-Pro dipeptides, the mechanism that is supposed to be responsible for the development of clinical manifestations of this disorder in man. A positive result of the presence of active enzyme inside cells was an improvement in fibroblast shape.

High levels of desmosines in urine and plasma of patients with pseudoxanthoma elasticum.

BACKGROUND: Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), a rare heritable disorder caused by mutations of the ABCC6 gene, is characterized by fragmentation and mineralization of elastic fibres. We determined the extent of degradation of elastin by measuring and comparing the amount of desmosines in plasma and urine of PXE patients, healthy carriers and normal subjects. METHODS: Using capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection (CE-LIF) we measured the amount of desmosines in the urine of 46 individuals (14 PXE patients, 17 healthy carriers and 15 controls) and in the plasma of 56 subjects (18 PXE patients, 23 healthy carriers and 15 controls). Pseudoxanthoma elasticum patients and carriers were identified by clinical, structural and molecular biology analyses. RESULTS: The urinary excretion of desmosines was two-fold higher in PXE patients than in controls (P < 0.01); the values for healthy carriers were intermediate between those of PXE patients and controls. A very similar trend between patients and their relatives was observed for plasma desmosines. There was a significant correlation between the amount of the desmosines in plasma and urine. Moreover, a positive correlation was observed between urinary desmosine content and age of the patients as well as between urinary desmosine content and severity of clinical manifestations. CONCLUSIONS: Both the urinary and plasma desmosine concentrations indicate that elastin degradation is higher in PXE patients and, to a lesser extent, in healthy carriers than in normal subjects. Data seem to indicate that the amount of elastin breakdown products correlates with the age of patients as well as with the severity of the disease.

Effect of enamel matrix derivative on human periodontal fibroblasts: proliferation, morphology and root surface colonization. An in vitro study.

BACKGROUND: Several clinical trials have shown the effectiveness of Emdogain(R) (EMD) in promoting tissue regeneration, even though the underlining biological mechanism is still poorly known. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present study was to verify the effect of EMD on the proliferation of human periodontal ligament (PDL) fibroblasts and on their colonization and differentiation following contact with the root surface of extracted teeth in vitro. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fibroblasts from PDL were seeded on Petri dishes and cell growth was evaluated by cell counting in the presence and absence of EMD, after 1, 3 and 8 d of culture. A significant effect of EMD upon cellular proliferation at d 3 and 8 was detected. When PDL cells were grown for 12 d with EMD on etched human root surface, a change in cell morphology was observed. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that cells grown on root EMD-treated surface present a body with a flattened surface closely adherent to the substrate and an outer smooth surface rounded in shape. From the flattened surface some thin and elongated cellular processes connecting with the substrate were also observable. PDL cells grown on EMD-treated surface showed lack of alkaline phosphatase activity, as some authors noticed in cementoblasts in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our data indicate that EMD enhances human PDL fibroblast proliferation. Furthermore, the cells in the presence of EMD show morphological changes that make them more similar to cementoblasts than to fibroblasts, suggesting a process of cellular differentiation that could play an important role in periodontal tissue repair.

Therapeutic apheresis exchange in two patients with prolidase deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Prolidase deficiency is a rare genetic disorder for which a cure has not yet been found. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness of apheresis exchange as a new therapeutic approach. METHODS: Apheresis exchanges were repeated monthly for four consecutive months, in parallel, on two patients, replacing prolidase-deficient red blood cells with normal filtered cells. Prolidase activity and urinary dipeptides were determined at regular intervals. RESULTS: The constant presence of active prolidase inside cells allowed a continuous, although partial, degradation of imidodipeptides, with a concomitant improvement of skin ulceration. CONCLUSIONS: Apheresis exchange could be a reasonable way of obtaining a clinical improvement in these patients.

Evaluation of the TiMo12Zr6Fe2 alloy for orthopaedic implants: in vitro biocompatibility study by using primary human fibroblasts and osteoblasts.

To reveal the biocompatibility of TiMo12Zr6Fe2 (TMZF), a new titanium alloy used since 1998 for orthopaedic prosthesis, we compared the behavior of primary human fibroblasts and osteoblasts grown on TMZF discs or on plastic tissue culture dishes, a widely used material specifically treated by the manufacturer to enhance cell growth. Proliferation, differentiation. RNA and collagen type I expression level of human cells were carried out. The analysis were performed over a period of 96 h. Fibroblasts behaved at the same way on the two different supports after 48 h, their number increased after 96 h when cells were grown on the alloy. Osteoblasts adhered and proliferated on the alloy discs as well as on plastic. RNA expression level was not affected. Interestingly, cell number at each time point was higher for fibroblasts than for osteoblasts. The RNA expression level was higher for the osteoblasts. Both cell types cultured on the alloy revealed an increase in the amount of type I collagen and a similar electrophoretic pattern was found for collagen produced by fibroblasts and osteoblasts grown on either supports. These results indicate good biocompatibility of the TMZF alloy, which allowed adhesion and proliferation of both the examined cell types and suggest that TMZF is a promising material for orthopaedic implants.

Inhibition of human neutrophil elastase by erythromycin and flurythromycin, two macrolide antibiotics.

Fourteen-member-ring macrolides are antibiotics with a variety of anti-inflammatory activities, and have repeatedly been reported to reduce mucus hypersecretion in conditions such as cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis. Their structure is characterized by a macrocyclic lactone ring. Because human neutrophil elastase (HNE) plays a crucial role in the vicious circle leading to mucus hypersecretion, and lactones are known to be elastase inhibitors, we hypothesized that macrolides might directly inhibit elastase. To investigate this hypothesis we designed a series of spectrophotometric experiments using a chromogenic substrate with two macrolides, erythromycin (Er) and flurythromycin (FE). We determined the 1st order rate constant (k(obs)) by inhibition and competitive substrate assays, the latter allowing us to calculate the substrate binding constant or inhibition constant and the acylation rate constant (k(a)). A proflavine displacement assay was used to determine the deacylation rate constant (k(d)). Both Er and FE are good HNE inhibitors, showing a high k(a) and a low k(d). Because the number of turnovers per inactivation of Er was congruent with 20-fold higher than that of FE, we supposed that the lower reactivation of HNE-FE was due to the formation of a more stable inactivated enzyme. This hypothesis was confirmed by the hydrazine reactivation of the acyl enzyme. For Er we identified a k(d) only, whereas for FE, in addition to the k(d), an alkylation constant (k(2)) was calculated, correlated to a fully inactivated enzyme. From our kinetics data, we therefore conclude that Er acts as an alternate substrate HNE inhibitor, whereas FE acts as an inactivator.

Diagnosis of late-infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis: a new sensitive method to assay lysosomal pepstatin-insensitive proteinase activity in human and animal specimens by capillary electrophoresis.

Batten disease, or human late-infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (LINCL) is a familiar progressive degenerative disease affecting children, caused by a deficiency of a lysosomal proteinase (tripeptidyl peptidase I, TPP-I) and characterized by the accumulation of autofluorescent storage bodies in the brain and other tissues of the body. Current methodology used to diagnose this disease needs to be improved in order to have less invasive techniques with higher resolution and shorter assay time. In this report, we discuss the potential merits of micellar electrokinetic chromatography as an excellent tool that requires minute samples but offers high resolution and a short running time for monitoring TPP-I activity in human and animal specimens.

Hyaluronan affects protein and collagen synthesis by in vitro human skin fibroblasts.

Given the importance of hyaluronan (HA) for the homeostasis of connective tissues during embryogenesis and aging and its role in tissue repair, the aim of the present study was to examine the effect of exogenous HA on the synthesis of total protein, collagen and HA by in vitro human dermal fibroblasts. With differences between different cell strains, HA, at concentrations between 0.5 and 1 microM, induced a significant decrease in total protein synthesised and secreted into the medium compared to controls (P < 0.05), and particularly in collagen (-40%; P < 0.05). The ratios between collagen types I and III and between collagen types V and I were normal. Pulse and chase experiments showed that protein degradation was normal. The presence of exogenous HA did not affect HA synthesis. Data strongly indicate that a relatively high concentration of HA in the extracellular space, such as during development and in the first phases of tissue repair, would partially limit the deposition of the extracellular matrix, and of collagen in particular. This would suggest a role for HA in delaying tissue differentiation during embryogenesis and in preventing fibrosis and scar formation in fetus and in the early phases of wound healing.

Alpha1-antitrypsin in serum determined by capillary isoelectric focusing.

A capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) method using bare fused-silica capillaries filled with polyethylene oxide (PEO) and carrier ampholyte solutions in the pH 3.5-5.0 range has been developed for the identification of alpha1-antitrypsin (alpha1AT) phenotypes in human serum. This novel procedure was routinely applied to the study of serum samples of five controls whose alpha1AT phenotype was previously identified and of twelve subjects whose alpha1AT phenotype was unknown. The results obtained allowed us to confirm or identify the alpha1AT phenotype in all sera tested. This procedure seems particularly suitable for identification of alpha1AT variants associated with diseases of clinical relevance.

Transient beneficial effect of GH replacement therapy and topical GH application on skin ulcers in a boy with prolidase deficiency.

A diagnostic examination for short stature in a boy with chronic ulcers of the feet due to prolidase deficiency, a rare disorder associated with intractable ulcers of the skin, led to the diagnosis of growth hormone (GH) deficiency. Replacement treatment with r-hGH associated with the topical application of a GH-containing ointment when the boy was 13 years old resulted in complete but transitory healing of the ulcers, which can probably be attributed to the growth-promoting effects of GH on dermal connective tissue.

Separation of closely related peptide substrates of human proteinases by micellar electrokinetic chromatography with anionic and nonionic surfactants.

In order to use micellar electrokinetic chromatography to determine the proteolytic activity of different proteinases simultaneously present in physiological fluids, the technique must be able to separate mixtures of substrates with closely related structures. In an attempt to determine the best electrophoretic conditions for resolving six p-nitroanilide peptides used as synthetic substrates of the elastolytic enzymes (human neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) most commonly involved in pulmonary diseases, we investigated the efficiency of ionic and nonionic surfactants in achieving the separation of this complex mixture. The results presented here show that, of all the electrophoretic systems tested, 30 mM sodium tetraborate, pH 9.3, containing 25 mM Brij 35 as micellar agent offered the best performance; the separation efficiency of peptides is greater than that obtained with other reagents and all peaks are baseline resolved and unambiguously identifiable. Analysis of the micelle-solute interaction with the surfactants investigated allowed better definition of the mechanism involved in the distribution of these peptides to the micelles and identification of some structural features that determined the magnitude of the micelle peptide complex formation.

Volatile components of cigarette smoke: effect of acrolein and acetaldehyde on human gingival fibroblasts in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Tobacco and some of its volatile and non-volatile components have been found to affect many types of cells including gingival fibroblasts. Since normal gingival fibroblast functioning is fundamental to the maintenance of the periodontal connective tissue, as well as to wound healing, we examined the effect of acrolein and acetaldehyde, volatile components of cigarette smoke, on proliferation, attachment, and ultrastructure of human gingival fibroblasts (HGFs) in culture. METHODS: Human gingival fibroblast (HGF) strains derived from healthy individuals with non-inflamed gingiva were used in this study. The cells were incubated in the presence of different concentrations of acrolein and acetaldehyde. Cell attachment and proliferation were evaluated after incubation for 3 hours and 5 days, respectively. In addition, the cells were examined with a transmission electron microscope in order to evaluate their morphology. RESULTS: The results show that acrolein and acetaldehyde produced dose-dependent inhibition of HGF attachment and proliferation. The cytotoxic effect was, however, reversible when both substances were removed, after 3 days, from the medium. The main ultrastructural finding for the HGF cytoplasm was the presence of vacuoles and lysosomal structures that became prominent with increasing concentration of acrolein and acetaldehyde. CONCLUSIONS: Our experimental data suggest that acrolein and acetaldehyde, volatile components of tobacco smoke, are detrimental to HGF survival and consequently to the oral connective tissue. According to our morpho-functional evidence, these findings corroborate clinical and epidemiological investigations demonstrating smoke as a risk factor in the development of periodontal disease.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography as a complementary method to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for studying limited proteolysis of proteins.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) has been utilized as an analytical method to perform investigations on limited proteolysis of proteins. To this purpose partial proteolysis experiments with a series of proteinases were performed, utilizing as model protein pyruvate kinase (PK) from Escherichia coli, an enzyme that is regulated allosterically by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP). Data obtained with sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and MEKC were compared; the profiles generated by submitting digests of PK treated with different proteinases in the presence and absence of FBP to electrophoretic analysis provided a useful adjunct for a better understanding of the effects of the allosteric activator on the conformation of the model enzyme. MEKC was also found to be a convenient technique for determining the kinetics of substrate proteolysis.

Simultaneous determination of Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase, human leukocyte elastase and cathepsin G activities by micellar electrokinetic chromatography.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) is a new method for analysing proteolytic activities simultaneously present in incubation mixtures. Here we demonstrate that MEKC differentiates between the enzymatic activities of Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase (PsE) and human leukocyte elastase (HLE) or cathepsin G (Cat G) in assays using the chromogenic peptide substrates Suc-Ala-Ala-Ala-NA or Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-NA, respectively (where Suc = succinyl and NA = 4-nitroaniline/u-nitroanilide). When PsE and Cat G were incubated at equimolar ratio with Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-NA, the PsE-specific cleavage products PheNA and Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro were detected whereas inhibition of the metalloproteinase PsE with EDTA resulted in detection of NA and Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe only. Similarly, when PsE and HLE were incubated at equimolar ratio with Suc-Ala-Ala-Ala-NA, the PsE-specific cleavage products Suc-Ala and Ala-Ala-NA were detected whereas at an PsE-HLE ratio 1:50, both the PsE-specific and the HLE-specific cleavage products NA and Suc-Ala-Ala-Ala were separated. MEKC also allowed determination of the kinetic constants for the interactions of PsE, Cat G and HLE with the substrates considered.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography for analyzing active site specificity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase.

The geometry of the catalytic site of Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase was reexamined, exploiting the specific feature of micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), i.e., its ability to detect a decrease of intact substrate and simultaneous formation of reaction products. We carried out a detailed investigation using two tri- and six tetra-peptide 4-nitroanilides (NA) differing from each other by only one or more amino acids as stable substrates. The kinetic cleavage parameters Km and k(cat) determined by MEKC and the catalytic efficiency Km/k(cat) values calculated allowed us to better define the substrate specificity of this proteinase.

Rapid detection of ornithine transcarbamylase activity by micellar electrokinetic chromatography.

A quantitative ultraviolet detection method for determining ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC-ase) activity using micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) is described. The method is based on the direct determination of citrulline formed upon enzymatic reaction. Using a background electrolyte consisting of 35 mM sodium tetraborate, pH 9.3, containing 65 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), the peak of citrulline in the electropherogram was easily identified and integrated. This allowed us to determine the rate of formation of the reaction product and to calculate the kinetic parameter Km of the OTC-ase investigated. The capillary electrophoretic method developed was applied to the determination of OTC-ase activity in plasma samples for citrulline in the nanogram range.

Proteoglycan sulfation in cartilage and cell cultures from patients with sulfate transporter chondrodysplasias: relationship to clinical severity and indications on the role of intracellular sulfate production.

Mutations in the diastrophic dysplasia sulfate transporter (DTDST) gene have been associated with a family of chondrodysplasias that includes diastrophic dysplasia (DTD), atelosteogenesis type 2 (AO2) and the lethal condition achondrogenesis type 1B (ACG1B). There is a correlation between the nature of the mutations and the clinical phenotype, but our understanding of the pathophysiology of the disorder, which involves defective sulfation of cartilage proteoglycans, is far from complete. To evaluate the degree of proteoglycan undersulfation in vivo, we have extracted chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans from cartilage of twelve patients with sulfate transporter chondrodysplasias and analyzed their disaccharide composition by HPLC after digestion with chondroitinase ABC. The amount of non-sulfated disaccharide was elevated in patients' samples (controls, 5.5%+/-2.8 (n=10); patients, 11% to 77%), the highest amount being present in ACG1B patients, indicating that undersulfation of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans occurs in cartilage in vivo and is correlated with the clinical severity. To investigate further the biochemical mechanisms responsible for the translation of genotype to phenotype, we have studied fibroblast cultures of patients with DTD, AO2 and ACG1B, and controls, by double-labelling with [35S]sulfate and [3H]glucosamine. The incorporation of extracellular sulfate, estimated by the 35S/3H ratio in proteoglycans, was reduced in all patients' cells, with ACG1B cells showing the lowest values. However, disaccharide analysis of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans showed that these were normally sul fated or only moderately undersulfated; marked undersulfation was observed only after addition of the artificial glycosaminoglycan-chain initiator, beta-D-xyloside, to the culture medium. These results suggest that, while utilization of extracellular sulfate is impaired, fibroblasts can replenish their intracellular sulfate pool by oxidizing sulfur-containing compounds (such as cysteine) and thus partially rescue PG sulfation under basal conditions. This rescue pathway becomes insufficient when GAG synthesis rate is stimulated by beta-D-xyloside. These findings may explain why phenotypic consequences of DTDST mutations are restricted to cartilage, a tissue with high GAG synthesis rate and poor vascular supply, and imply that pharmacological therapy aimed at restoring the intracellular sulfate pool might improve PG sulfation in DTD and related disorders.