The mechanism for directional hearing in fish.

Locating sound sources such as prey or predators is critical for survival in many vertebrates. Terrestrial vertebrates locate sources by measuring the time delay and intensity difference of sound pressure at each ear1-5. Underwater, however, the physics of sound makes interaural cues very small, suggesting that directional hearing in fish should be nearly impossible6. Yet, directional hearing has been confirmed behaviourally, although the mechanisms have remained unknown for decades. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this remarkable ability, including the possibility that fish evolved an extreme sensitivity to minute interaural differences or that fish might compare sound pressure with particle motion signals7,8. However, experimental challenges have long hindered a definitive explanation. Here we empirically test these models in the transparent teleost Danionella cerebrum, one of the smallest vertebrates9,10. By selectively controlling pressure and particle motion, we dissect the sensory algorithm underlying directional acoustic startles. We find that both cues are indispensable for this behaviour and that their relative phase controls its direction. Using micro-computed tomography and optical vibrometry, we further show that D. cerebrum has the sensory structures to implement this mechanism. D. cerebrum shares these structures with more than 15% of living vertebrate species, suggesting a widespread mechanism for inferring sound direction.

Fast interrogation wavelength tuning for all-optical photoacoustic imaging.

Optical detection of ultrasound for photoacoustic imaging provides a large bandwidth and high sensitivity at high acoustic frequencies. Therefore, higher spatial resolutions can be achieved using Fabry-Pérot cavity sensors than conventional piezoelectric detection. However, fabrication constraints during the deposition of the sensing polymer layer require precise control of the interrogation beam wavelength to provide optimal sensitivity. This is commonly achieved by employing slowly tunable narrowband lasers as interrogation sources, hence limiting the acquisition speed. We propose instead to use a broadband source and a fast-tunable acousto-optic filter to adjust the interrogation wavelength at each pixel within a few microseconds. We demonstrate the validity of this approach by performing photoacoustic imaging with a highly inhomogeneous Fabry-Pérot sensor.

Publisher Correction: Transparent Danionella translucida as a genetically tractable vertebrate brain model.

The version of this paper originally published contained errors in reference citations: in the first paragraph of the Results section, the text "This extent of optical clarity probably results from the absence of skull above the brain22. In our specimens, Nissl-stained coronal sections through the head showed that the skull surrounds the brain only laterally and ventrally" should have read "This extent of optical clarity probably results from the absence of skull above the brain21. In our specimens, Nissl-stained coronal sections through the head22 showed that the skull surrounds the brain only laterally and ventrally." In addition, the unit abbreviation "µm" was incorrectly divided at a line break in the third paragraph of the Discussion, which might have led to some confusion. These errors have been corrected in the PDF and HTML versions of the article.

Transparent Danionella translucida as a genetically tractable vertebrate brain model.

Understanding how distributed neuronal circuits integrate sensory information and generate behavior is a central goal of neuroscience. However, it has been difficult to study neuronal networks at single-cell resolution across the entire adult brain in vertebrates because of their size and opacity. We address this challenge here by introducing the fish Danionella translucida to neuroscience as a potential model organism. This teleost remains small and transparent even in adulthood, when neural circuits and behavior have matured. Despite having the smallest known adult vertebrate brain, D. translucida displays a rich set of complex behaviors, including courtship, shoaling, schooling, and acoustic communication. In order to carry out optical measurements and perturbations of neural activity with genetically encoded tools, we established CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing and Tol2 transgenesis techniques. These features make D. translucida a promising model organism for the study of adult vertebrate brain function at single-cell resolution.

Photoacoustic imaging beyond the acoustic diffraction-limit with dynamic speckle illumination and sparse joint support recovery.

In deep tissue photoacoustic imaging the spatial resolution is inherently limited by the acoustic wavelength. Recently, it was demonstrated that it is possible to surpass the acoustic diffraction limit by analyzing fluctuations in a set of photoacoustic images obtained under unknown speckle illumination patterns. Here, we purpose an approach to boost reconstruction fidelity and resolution, while reducing the number of acquired images by utilizing a compressed sensing computational reconstruction framework. The approach takes into account prior knowledge of the system response and sparsity of the target structure. We provide proof of principle experiments of the approach and demonstrate that improved performance is obtained when both speckle fluctuations and object priors are used. We numerically study the expected performance as a function of the measurement's signal to noise ratio and sample spatial-sparsity. The presented reconstruction framework can be applied to analyze existing photoacoustic experimental data sets containing dynamic fluctuations.

Improving photoacoustic-guided optical focusing in scattering media by spectrally filtered detection.

We study the potential of photoacoustic guidance for light focusing through scattering samples via wavefront-shaping and iterative optimization. We experimentally demonstrate that the focusing efficiency on an extended absorber can be improved by iterative optimization of the high frequency components of the broadband photoacoustic signal detected with a spherically focused transducer. We demonstrate more than 12-fold increase in the photoacoustic signal generated by a 30 µm wire using a narrow frequency band around 60 MHz. By monitoring the speckle pattern evolution during the optimization process with a CCD camera, we experimentally confirm that such optimization leads to a smaller optical focus than what would be obtained by optimizing lower frequencies of the photoacoustic feedback.

Light focusing and two-dimensional imaging through scattering media using the photoacoustic transmission matrix with an ultrasound array.

We implement the photoacoustic transmission matrix approach on a two-dimensional photoacoustic imaging system, using a 15 MHz linear ultrasound array. Using a black leaf skeleton as a complex absorbing structure, we demonstrate that the photoacoustic transmission matrix approach allows to reveal structural features that are invisible in conventional photoacoustic images, as well as to selectively control light focusing on absorbing targets, leading to a local enhancement of the photoacoustic signal.

Improving visibility in photoacoustic imaging using dynamic speckle illumination.

In high-frequency photoacoustic imaging with uniform illumination, homogeneous photoabsorbing structures may be invisible because of their large size or limited-view issues. Here we show that, by exploiting dynamic speckle illumination, it is possible to reveal features that are normally invisible with a photoacoustic system comprised of a 20 MHz linear ultrasound array. We demonstrate imaging of a ∅5 mm absorbing cylinder and a 30 µm black thread arranged in a complex shape. The hidden structures are directly retrieved from photoacoustic images recorded for different random speckle illuminations of the phantoms by assessing the variation in the value of each pixel over the illumination patterns.