Enhancing modulation performance by design of hybrid plasmonic optical modulator integrating multi-layer graphene and TiO2on silicon waveguides.

A novel way to enhance modulation performance is through the design of a hybrid plasmonic optical modulator that integrates multi-layer graphene and TiO2on silicon waveguides. In this article, a design is presented of a proposed modulator based on the use of the two-dimensional finite difference eigenmode solver, the three-dimensional eigenmode expansion solver, and the CHARGE solver. Leveraging inherent graphene properties and utilizing the subwavelength confinement capabilities of hybrid plasmonic waveguides (HPWs), we achieved a modulator design that is both compact and highly efficient. The electrical bandwidthf3dBis at 460.42 GHz and it reduces energy consumption to 12.17 fJ/bit with a modulator that functions at a wavelength of 1.55µm. According to our simulation results, our innovation was the optimization of the third dielectric layer's thickness, setting the stage to achieve greater modulation depths. This synergy between graphene and HPWs not only augments subwavelength confinement, but also optimizes light-graphene interaction, culminating in a markedly enhanced modulation efficiency. As a result, our modulator presents a high extinction ratio and minimized insertion loss. Furthermore, it exhibits polarization insensitivity and a greater bandwidth. Our work sets a new benchmark in optical communication systems, emphasizing the potential for the next generation of chip-scale with high-efficiency optical modulators that significantly outpace conventional graphene-based designs.

Design and Simulation Investigation of Si3N4 Photonics Circuits for Wideband On-Chip Optical Gas Sensing around 2 µm Optical Wavelength.

We theoretically explore the potential of Si3N4 on SiO2 waveguide platform toward a wideband spectroscopic detection around the optical wavelength of 2 µm. The design of Si3N4 on SiO2 waveguide architectures consisting of a Si3N4 slot waveguide for a wideband on-chip spectroscopic sensing around 2 µm, and a Si3N4 multi-mode interferometer (MMI)-based coupler for light coupling from classical strip waveguide into the identified Si3N4 slot waveguides over a wide spectral range are investigated. We found that a Si3N4 on SiO2 slot waveguide structure can be designed for using as optical interaction part over a spectral range of interest, and the MMI structure can be used to enable broadband optical coupling from a strip to the slot waveguide for wideband multi-gas on-chip spectroscopic sensing. Reasons for the operating spectral range of the system are discussed.

A new material platform of Si photonics for implementing architecture of dense wavelength division multiplexing on Si bulk wafer.

A new materials group to implement dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) in Si photonics is proposed. A large thermo-optic (TO) coefficient of Si malfunctions multiplexer/demultiplexer (MUX/DEMUX) on a chip under thermal fluctuation, and thus DWDM implementation, has been one of the most challenging targets in Si photonics. The present study specifies an optical materials group for DWDM by a systematic survey of their TO coefficients and refractive indices. The group is classified as mid-index contrast optics (MiDex) materials, and non-stoichiometric silicon nitride (SiNx) is chosen to demonstrate its significant thermal stability. The TO coefficient of non-stoichiometric SiNx is precisely measured in the temperature range 24-76 °C using the SiNx rings prepared by two methods: chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). The CVD-SiNx ring reveals nearly the same TO coefficient reported for stoichiometric CVD-Si3N4, while the value for the PVD-SiNx ring is slightly higher. Both SiNx rings lock their resonance frequencies within 100 GHz in this temperature range. Since CVD-SiNx needs a high temperature annealing to reduce N-H bond absorption, it is concluded that PVD-SiNx is suited as a MiDex material introduced in the CMOS back-end-of-line. Further stabilization is required, considering the crosstalk between two channels; a 'silicone' polymer is employed to compensate for the temperature fluctuation using its negative TO coefficient, called athermalization. This demonstrates that the resonance of these SiNx rings is locked within 50 GHz at the same temperature range in the wavelength range 1460-1620 nm (the so-called S, C, and L bands in optical fiber communication networks). A further survey on the MiDex materials strongly suggests that Al2O3, Ga2O3 Ta2O5, HfO2 and their alloys should provide even more stable platforms for DWDM implementation in MiDex photonics. It is discussed that the MiDex photonics will find various applications such as medical and environmental sensing and in-vehicle data-communication.

Low-loss Ge-rich Si0.2Ge0.8 waveguides for mid-infrared photonics.

We demonstrate low-loss Ge-rich Si0.2Ge0.8 waveguides on Si1-xGex (x from 0 to 0.79) graded substrates operating in the mid-infrared wavelength range at λ=4.6 µm. Propagation losses as low as (1.5±0.5)dB/cm and (2±0.5)dB/cm were measured for the quasi-TE and quasi-TM polarizations, respectively. A total coupling loss (input/output) of only 10 dB was found for waveguide widths larger than 7 µm due to a good fiber-waveguide mode matching. Near-field optical mode profiles measured at the output waveguide facet allowed us to inspect the optical mode and precisely measure the modal effective area of each waveguide providing a good correlation between experiments and simulations. These results put forward the potential of low-index-contrast Si1-xGex waveguides with high Ge concentration as fundamental blocks for mid-infrared photonic integrated circuits.

Sharp bends and Mach-Zehnder interferometer based on Ge-rich-SiGe waveguides on SiGe graded buffer.

The integration of germanium (Ge)-rich active devices in photonic integrated circuits is challenging due to the lattice mismatch between silicon (Si) and Ge. A new Ge-rich silicon-germanium (SiGe) waveguide on graded buffer was investigated as a platform for integrated photonic circuits. At a wavelength of 1550 nm, low loss bends with radii as low as 12 µm and Multimode Interferometer beam splitter based on Ge-rich SiGe waveguide on graded buffer were designed, fabricated and characterized. A Mach Zehnder interferometer exhibiting a contrast of more than 10 dB has been demonstrated.

Giant electro-optic effect in Ge/SiGe coupled quantum wells.

Silicon-based photonics is now considered as the photonic platform for the next generation of on-chip communications. However, the development of compact and low power consumption optical modulators is still challenging. Here we report a giant electro-optic effect in Ge/SiGe coupled quantum wells. This promising effect is based on an anomalous quantum-confined Stark effect due to the separate confinement of electrons and holes in the Ge/SiGe coupled quantum wells. This phenomenon can be exploited to strongly enhance optical modulator performance with respect to the standard approaches developed so far in silicon photonics. We have measured a refractive index variation up to 2.3 × 10(-3) under a bias voltage of 1.5 V, with an associated modulation efficiency V(π)L(π) of 0.046 V cm. This demonstration paves the way for the development of efficient and high-speed phase modulators based on the Ge/SiGe material system.

Recent progress in GeSi electro-absorption modulators.

Electro-absorption from GeSi heterostructures is receiving growing attention as a high performance optical modulator for short distance optical interconnects. Ge incorporation with Si allows strong modulation mechanism using the Franz-Keldysh effect and the quantum-confined Stark effect from bulk and quantum well structures at telecommunication wavelengths. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge and the on-going challenges concerning the development of high performance GeSi electro-absorption modulators. We also provide feasible future prospects concerning this research topic.

Quantum-confined Stark effect at 1.3 µm in Ge/Si(0.35)Ge(0.65) quantum-well structure.

Room-temperature quantum-confined Stark effect in a Ge/SiGe quantum-well structure is reported at the wavelength of 1.3 µm. The operating wavelength is tuned by the use of strain engineering. Low-energy plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition is used to grow 20 periods of strain-compensated quantum wells (8 nm Ge well and 12 nm Si(0.35)Ge(0.65) barrier) on Si(0.21)Ge(0.79) virtual substrate. The fraction of light absorbed per well allows for a strong modulation around 1.3 µm. The half-width at half-maximum of the excitonic peak of only 12 meV allows for a discussion on physical mechanisms limiting the performances of such devices.

23 GHz Ge/SiGe multiple quantum well electro-absorption modulator.

We report on high speed operation of a Ge/SiGe multiple quantum well (MQW) electro-absorption modulator in a waveguide configuration. 23 GHz bandwidth is experimentally demonstrated from a 3 µm wide and 90 µm long Ge/SiGe MQW waveguide. The modulator exhibits a high extinction ratio of more than 10 dB over a wide spectral range. Moreover with a swing voltage of 1 V between 3 and 4 V, an extinction ratio as high as 9 dB can be obtained with a corresponding estimated energy consumption of 108 fJ per bit. This demonstrates the potentiality of Ge/SiGe MQWs as a building block of silicon compatible photonic integrated circuits for short distance energy efficient optical interconnections.

Polarization dependence of quantum-confined Stark effect in Ge/SiGe quantum well planar waveguides.

We report room-temperature quantum-confined Stark effect in Ge/SiGe multiple quantum wells (MQWs) with light propagating parallel to the plane of the Ge/SiGe MQWs for applications in integrated photonics. Planar waveguides embedded in a p-i-n diode are fabricated in order to investigate the absorption spectra at different reverse bias voltages from optical transmission measurements for both TE and TM polarizations. Polarization dependence of the absorption spectra of the Ge/SiGe MQWs is clearly observed. The planar waveguides exhibit a high extinction ratio and low insertion loss over a wide spectral range for TE polarization.

Quantum-confined Stark effect measurements in Ge/SiGe quantum-well structures.

We investigate the room-temperature quantum-confined Stark effect in Ge/SiGe multiple quantum wells (MQWs) grown by low-energy plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The active region is embedded in a p-i-n diode, and absorption spectra at different reverse bias voltages are obtained from optical transmission, photocurrent, and differential transmission measurements. The measurements provide accurate values of the fraction of light absorbed per well of the Ge/SiGe MQWs. Both Stark shift and reduction of exciton absorption peak are observed. Differential transmission indicates that there is no thermal contribution to these effects.