A general ability for judging simple and complex ensembles.

People can report summary statistics for various features about a group of objects. One theory is that different abilities support ensemble judgments about low-level features like color versus high-level features like identity. Existing research mostly evaluates such claims based on evidence of correlations within and between feature domains. However, correlations between two identical tasks that only differ in the type of feature that is used can be inflated by method variance. Another concern is that conclusions about high-level features are mostly based on faces. We used latent variable methods on data from 237 participants to investigate the abilities supporting low-level and high-level feature ensemble judgments. Ensemble judgment was measured with six distinct tests, each requiring judgments for a distinct low-level or high-level feature, using different task requirements. We also controlled for other general visual abilities when examining how low-level and high-level ensemble abilities relate to each other. Confirmatory factor analyses showed a perfect correlation between the two factors, suggesting a single ability. There was a unique relationship between these two factors beyond the influence of object recognition and perceptual speed. Additional results from 117 of the same participants also ruled out the role of working memory. This study provides strong evidence of a general ensemble judgment ability across a wide range of features at the latent level and characterizes its relationship to other visual abilities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Measuring object recognition ability: Reliability, validity, and the aggregate z-score approach.

Measurement of domain-general object recognition ability (o) requires minimization of domain-specific variance. One approach is to model o as a latent variable explaining performance on a battery of tests which differ in task demands and stimuli; however, time and sample requirements may be prohibitive. Alternatively, an aggregate measure of o can be obtained by averaging z-scores across tests. Using data from Sunday et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151, 676-694, (2022), we demonstrated that aggregate scores from just two such object recognition tests provide a good approximation (r = .79) of factor scores calculated from a model using a much larger set of tests. Some test combinations produced correlations of up to r = .87 with factor scores. We then revised these tests to reduce testing time, and developed an odd one out task, using a unique object category on nearly every trial, to increase task and stimuli diversity. To validate our measures, 163 participants completed the object recognition tests on two occasions, one month apart. Providing the first evidence that o is stable over time, our short aggregate o measure demonstrated good test-retest reliability (r = .77). The stability of o could not be completely accounted for by intelligence, perceptual speed, and early visual ability. Structural equation modeling suggested that our tests load significantly onto the same latent variable, and revealed that as a latent variable, o is highly stable (r = .93). Aggregation is an efficient method for estimating o, allowing investigation of individual differences in object recognition ability to be more accessible in future studies.

How general is ensemble perception?

People can summarize features of groups of objects (e.g., the mean size of apples). Claims of dissociations or common mechanisms supporting such ensemble perception (EP) judgments have generally been made on the basis of correlations between pairs of tasks. These correlations can be inflated because they use the same stimuli, summary statistics and/or task format. Performance on EP tasks also correlates with that on object recognition (OR) tasks. Here, we seek evidence for a general EP ability that is also distinct from OR ability. Two-hundred participants completed three tasks that did not overlap in stimuli, summary statistic or task format. Participants performed a diversity comparison for arrays of nonsense blobs, a mean identity judgment with ensembles of Transformer toys, and the novel object memory task with novel objects (NOMT-Greeble). We hypothesized that EP contributes to the first two of these tasks, while OR contributes only to the last two. Performance on the two tasks suggested to tap an EP ability were correlated after controlling for the third task. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test our predictions without the confound of measurement error. Correlations between factors assumed to share influence from EP or from OR were higher than that between the factors that we expect did not share these influences. The results provide the first clear evidence for a domain-general EP ability distinct from OR. We argue that understanding such a general ability will require a change in designs and analytical approaches in the study if individual differences in EP.

Domain-general ability underlies complex object ensemble processing.

When seeing groups of objects, various features can be extracted to form an ensemble representation, including low-level features such as orientation and higher-level features like facial expression. Past research proposed distinct abilities for ensemble coding of high-level versus low-level visual features, but the only complex objects used were faces. Here, we examine evidence for a shared ability supporting ensemble representations for complex objects from different object categories. In 2 experiments, participants completed an ensemble mean judgment task for an array of 4 objects, including planes and birds (Experiment 1) or cars and birds (Experiment 2). We also measured and controlled for domain-specific recognition ability. Across the 2 experiments, performance on ensemble judgments with different objects were correlated, even after controlled for domain-specific recognition abilities. These findings provide the strongest evidence to date of a domain-general ability involved in complex object ensemble coding. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Domain-specific and domain-general contributions to reading musical notation.

Musical practice may benefit not only domain-specific abilities, such as pitch discrimination and music performance, but also domain-general abilities, like executive functioning and memory. Behavioral and neural changes in visual processing have been associated with music-reading experience. However, it is still unclear whether there is a domain-specific visual ability to process musical notation. This study investigates the specificity of the visual skills relevant to simple decisions about musical notation. Ninety-six participants varying in music-reading experience answered a short survey to quantify experience with musical notation and completed a test battery that assessed musical notation reading fluency and accuracy at the level of individual note or note sequence. To characterize how this ability may relate to domain-general abilities, we also estimated general intelligence (as measured with the Raven's Progressive Matrices) and general object-recognition ability (as measure by a recently proposed construct o). We obtained reliable measurements on our various tasks and found evidence for a domain-specific ability of the perception of musical notation. This music-reading ability and domain-general abilities were found to contribute to performance on specific tasks differently, depending on the level of experience reading music.

Distractor familiarity reveals the importance of configural information in musical notation.

The study of perceptual expertise in a visual domain requires the definition of boundaries for the objects that are part of the domain in question. Unlike other well-studied domains, such as faces or words, the domain of musical notation has been lacking in efforts to identify critical features that define the objects of music reading. In the present study, we took advantage of the distractor familiarity effect in visual search. We asked participants to search for a prespecified target note among familiar/unfamiliar distractor notes when two features of musical notation, dot-stem configuration (the way of connecting the dot and the stem of a note) and connectedness (whether or not the dot and the stem of a note were connected), were manipulated. A participant's level of music-reading expertise predicted the magnitude of the distractor familiarity effect only when the dot-stem configuration was diagnostic for the search. Connectedness did not induce a distractor familiarity effect, regardless of its diagnosticity. Dot-stem configuration is a defining feature of music notes, helping to characterize the boundaries of the domain of music-reading expertise. This work has also improved on the tasks used to quantify expertise in reading musical notation.

Effect of Endoplasmic Reticular Stress on Free Hemoglobin Metabolism and Liver Injury.

Elevated soluble (s) CD163 and free hemoglobin (Hb) levels predict fatty liver progression; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying Hb metabolism and liver injury remain undefined. We investigated the effects of endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress on red blood cell (RBC) rheology and free Hb recycling pathways. ER stress was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by an intraperitoneal injection of tunicamycin (TM) (50, 100, and 200 µg/100 g body weight (BW)) or an intravenous injection of Hb (5 mg/100 g BW). A TM injection increased sCD163 levels, attenuated free Hb uptake, and maintained RBC aggregability. An Hb injection increased serum LVV-hemorphin-7 and total bilirubin levels, but this effect was suppressed by TM. A Western blot analysis showed that ER stress suppressed Hb degradation in the liver through downregulation of globin degradation proteins cathepsin D and glyoxalase-1, as well as heme degradation protein heme oxyganase-1 and keap-1 expression. An ER stress activator also increased the translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (p65) and nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) to nuclei. In conclusion, ER stress triggers ineffective Hb metabolism via altering globin and heme iron degradation pathways. Inability to recycle and metabolize free Hb may underlie the association between iron dysfunction and liver injury.

Ferric Citrate Supplementation Reduces Red-Blood-Cell Aggregation and Improves CD163+ Macrophage-Mediated Hemoglobin Metabolism in a Rat Model of High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obesity.

SCOPE: In adults, >90% of the daily iron requirement is derived from macrophage-mediated heme iron, recycling from senescent red blood cells (RBCs) or free hemoglobin (Hb). Currently, the effects of pharmacological doses of iron supplementation on RBCs and heme iron recycling in obesity are unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS: Sprague Dawley rats are fed a standard diet or a 50% high-fat diet (HFD) with (0.25, 1, and 2 g of ferric iron per kg diet) or without ferric citrate supplementation for 12 weeks. Ferric iron increases hepatic iron accumulation in macrophages and hepatocyte-like cells. Compared with rats that received the standard diet, HFD-fed rats exhibit higher RBC aggregation and serum-free Hb levels but lower LVV-hemorphin-7 levels. These effects are reversed by ferric citrate supplementation. Immunofluorescent staining reveals that ferric iron increases the expression of hepatic CD163+ macrophages and heme oxygenase (HO)-1. A further analysis reveals the dose-related effects of ferric iron on hepatic globin degradation proteins (cathepsin D and glyoxalase 1), cytochrome p450 reductase expression, and HO-1 enzyme activity. CONCLUSIONS: Ferric citrate supplementation reduces RBC aggregation and improves CD163+ macrophage-mediated Hb metabolism in HFD-induced obese rats. These findings suggest that ferric citrate may be explored as an alternative treatment method for RBC dysfunction.

Systems Factorial Technology provides new insights on the other-race effect.

The other-race effect refers to the difficulty of discriminating between faces from ethnic and racial groups other than one's own. This effect may be caused by a slow, feature-by-feature, analytic process, whereas the discrimination of own-race faces occurs faster and more holistically. However, this distinction has received inconsistent support. To provide a critical test, we employed Systems Factorial Technology (Townsend & Nozawa in Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 39, 321-359, 1995), which is a powerful tool for analyzing the organization of mental networks underlying perceptual processes. We compared Taiwanese participants' face discriminations of both own-race (Taiwanese woman) and other-race (Caucasian woman) faces according to the faces' nose-to-mouth separation and eye-to-eye separation. We found evidence for weak holistic processing (parallel processing) coupled with the strong analytic property of a self-terminating stopping rule for own-race faces, in contrast to strong analytic processing (serial self-terminating processing) for other-race faces, supporting the holistic/analytic hypothesis.

Selective attention modulates the effect of target location probability on redundant signal processing.

We investigated the decision process underlying the detection of targets at multiple locations. In three experiments using the same observers, target location probability and attentional instructions were manipulated. A redundant-target detection task was conducted in which participants were required to detect a dot presented at one of two locations. When the dot appeared at the two locations with equal frequency (Experiment 1), those participants who were found to have limited to unlimited capacity were shown to adopt a parallel, self-terminating strategy. By contrast, those participants who had supercapacity were shown to process redundant targets in a coactive manner. When targets were presented with unequal probability, two participants adopted a parallel, self-terminating strategy regardless of whether they were informed the target location probability (Experiment 3) or not (Experiment 2). For the remaining two participants, the strategy changed from parallel, self-terminating to serial, self-terminating as a result of the probability instructions. In Experiments 2 and 3, all the participants were of unlimited to limited capacity. Taken together, these results suggest that target location probability differently affects the selection of a decision strategy and highlight the role of controlled attention in selecting a decision strategy.

Individual differences in Zhong-Yong tendency and processing capacity.

The present study investigated how an individual's Zhong-Yong tendency is related to his/her perceptual processing capacity. In two experiments, participants completed a Zhong-Yong Thinking Style Scale and performed a redundant-target detection task. Processing capacity was assessed with a non-parametric approach (systems factorial technology, SFT) and a parametric (linear ballistic accumulator model, LBA) approach. Results converged to suggest a positive correlation between Zhong-Yong tendency and processing capacity. High middle-way thinkers had larger processing capacity in multiple-signal processing compared with low middle-way thinkers, indicating that they processed information more efficiently and in an integrated fashion. Zhong-Yong tendency positively correlates with the processing capacity. These findings suggest that the individual differences in processing capacity can account for the reasons why high middle-way thinkers tend to adopt a global and flexible processing strategy to deal with the external world. Furthermore, the influence of culturally dictated thinking style on cognition can be revealed in a perception task.

Individual differences in working memory capacity and workload capacity.

We investigated the relationship between working memory capacity (WMC) and workload capacity (WLC). Each participant performed an operation span (OSPAN) task to measure his/her WMC and three redundant-target detection tasks to measure his/her WLC. WLC was computed non-parametrically (Experiments 1 and 2) and parametrically (Experiment 2). Both levels of analyses showed that participants high in WMC had larger WLC than those low in WMC only when redundant information came from visual and auditory modalities, suggesting that high-WMC participants had superior processing capacity in dealing with redundant visual and auditory information. This difference was eliminated when multiple processes required processing for only a single working memory subsystem in a color-shape detection task and a double-dot detection task. These results highlighted the role of executive control in integrating and binding information from the two working memory subsystems for perceptual decision making.

Relative change probability affects the decision process of detecting multiple feature changes.

Change in a real world setting usually consists of multiple feature changes, and one feature may change more often than another. This study manipulated the number of changes in orientation and spatial frequency to examine the effect of the relative change probability on the comparison and decision processes in a change detection task. Results showed that when two types of features changed equally often (Experiment 1), parallel self-terminating processing was adopted. When frequency changed more often than orientation (Experiment 2), serial self-terminating processing was adopted. However, when there was a lack of cognitive resources (Experiment 3), parallel self-terminating processing was adopted even when relative saliency existed. In all three experiments, the process capacity ranged from limited to unlimited. In addition, the participants reported that they were not aware of their use of change probability information, thus, providing evidence of implicit learning of change probability. These results support the relative saliency hypothesis: relative change probability affects the relative salience between features and, consequently, influences the adoption of decision strategies. Furthermore, the results highlight that perceptual comparison and decision processes are flexible and can vary depending on the relative saliency and resources available for information processing.