Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of 1% Topical Cannabidiol Gel in Animal Models.

Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD), a phytocannabinoid isolated from cannabis plants, is an interesting candidate for studying its anti-inflammatory effects, especially in the pre-clinical and animal models. Its anti-inflammatory effects, such as reduction of edema and arthritis, have been demonstrated in animal models. However, topical CBD administration requires further evaluation of CBD dosage and efficacy in animal models and clinical settings. Methods: This in vivo study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of topical CBD administration in an animal model. Scientific experiments, including the formalin test, writhing test, carrageenan-induced edema, histopathological examination, and detection of various proinflammatory mediators, were performed. Results: The anti-inflammatory effects in vivo after inflammation induction, represented by decreased times of paw licking, degree of paw edema, and decreased writhing response, showed that 1% of tropical CBD use had significantly comparable or better anti-inflammatory effects when compared with tropical diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory agent. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effects were significant compared with the placebo. In addition, the histopathological examination showed that topical CBD drastically reduced leukocyte infiltration and the degree of inflammation. This study also showed that the levels of various proinflammatory mediators in the plasma of mice treated with topical CBD did not differ from those treated with diclofenac. Conclusions: The topical administration of 1% CBD gel is a potentially effective candidate for an anti-inflammatory agent. Candidate for an anti-inflammatory agent.

Development of peptide nucleic acid-based bead array technology for Bacillus cereus detection.

Numerous novel methods to detect foodborne pathogens have been extensively developed to ensure food safety. Among the important foodborne bacteria, Bacillus cereus was identified as a pathogen of concern that causes various food illnesses, leading to interest in developing effective detection methods for this pathogen. Although a standard method based on culturing and biochemical confirmative test is available, it is time- and labor-intensive. Alternative PCR-based methods have been developed but lack high-throughput capacity and ease of use. This study, therefore, attempts to develop a robust method for B. cereus detection by leveraging the highly specific pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) as probes for a bead array method with multiplex and high-throughput capacity. In this study, PNAs bearing prolyl-2-aminocyclopentanecarboxylic acid (ACPC) backbone with groEL, motB, and 16S rRNA sequences were covalently coupled with three sets of fluorescently barcoded beads to detect the three B. cereus genes. The developed acpcPNA-based bead array exhibited good selectivity where only signals were detectable in the presence of B. cereus, but not for other species. The sensitivity of this acpcPNA-based bead assay in detecting genomic DNA was found to be 0.038, 0.183 and 0.179 ng for groEL, motB and 16S rRNA, respectively. This performance was clearly superior to its DNA counterpart, hence confirming much stronger binding strength of acpcPNA over DNA. The robustness of the developed method was further demonstrated by testing artificially spiked milk and pickled mustard greens with minimal interference from food metrices. Hence, this proof-of-concept acpcPNA-based bead array method has been proven to serve as an effective alternative nucleic acid-based method for foodborne pathogens.

A rapid colorimetric lateral flow test strip for detection of live Salmonella Enteritidis using whole phage as a specific binder.

Specific antibodies are essential components of immunoassay, which can be applied for the detection of pathogens. However, producing an antibody specific to live bacterial pathogens by the classical method of immunizing animals with live pathogens can be impractical. Phage display technology is an effective alternative method to obtain antibodies with the desired specificity against selected antigenic molecules. In this study, we demonstrated the power of a microarray-based technique for obtaining specific phage-derived antibody fragments against Salmonella, an important foodborne pathogen. The selected phage-displayed antibody fragments were subsequently employed to develop a lateral flow test strip assay for the detection of live Salmonella. The test strips showed specificity to Salmonella Enteritidis without cross-reactivity to eight serovars of Salmonella or other bacteria strains. The test strip assay requires 15 min, whereas the conventional biochemical and serological confirmation test requires at least 24 h. The microarray screening technique for specific phage-based binders and the test strip method can be further applied to other foodborne pathogens.

The evolution of multiplex detection of mycotoxins using immunoassay platform technologies.

Mycotoxins present serious threats not only for public health, but also for the economy and environment. The problems become more complex and serious due to co-contamination of multiple hazardous mycotoxins in commodities and environment. To mitigate against this issue, accurate, affordable, and rapid multiplex detection methods are required. This review presents an overview of emerging rapid immuno-based multiplex methods capable of detecting mycotoxins present in agricultural products and feed ingredients published within the past five years. The scientific principles, advantages, disadvantages, and assay performance of these rapid multiplex immunoassays, including lateral flow, fluorescence polarization, chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance, surface enhanced Raman scattering, electrochemical sensor, and nanoarray are discussed. From the recent literature landscape, it is predicted that the future trend of the detection methods for multiple mycotoxins will rely on the advance of various sensor technologies, a variety of enhancing and reporting signals based on nanomaterials, rapid and effective sample preparation, and capacity for quantitative analysis.

Development of a microarray lateral flow strip test using a luminescent organic compound for multiplex detection of five mycotoxins.

While lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is a simple technique that offers a rapid, robust, user friendly, and point-of-care test, its capacity for multiplex detection is rather limited. This study therefore combined the multiplexity of microarray technique and the simple and rapid characteristics of LFIA to enable simultaneous and quantitative detection of five mycotoxins, namely aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FUMB1), T-2 toxin (T-2), and zearalenone (ZON). In addition, we have synthesized a novel extra-large Stokes shift and strong fluorescence organic compound to be used as a reporter molecule which can be detected under UV light without light filter requirement. Many parameters including microarray spotting buffer, blocking buffer, and concentrations of mycotoxin antibodies were optimized for the microarray LFIA (µLFIA) construction. With the optimal conditions, the µLFIA could accurately and quantitatively detect multiple mycotoxins at the same time. The limits of detection of AFB1, DON, FUMB1, T-2, and ZON were 1.3, 0.5, 0.4, 0.4, and 0.9 ppb, respectively. The recoveries of these five mycotoxins were 70.7%-119.5% and 80.4%-124.8% for intra-assay and inter-assay, respectively. Combining the advantages of the novel reporter molecule and the multiplex capability of µLFIA test, this system could simultaneously detect multiple mycotoxins in one sample with high specificity and high sensitivity. Moreover, this system presents a promising affordable point-of-care platform to detect other analytes as well.

Double antibody pairs sandwich-ELISA (DAPS-ELISA) detects Acidovorax citrulli serotypes with broad coverage.

Acidovorax citrulli, a seedborne bacterium and quarantine pest, causes the devastating bacterial fruit blotch disease in cucurbit plants. Immunological assays such as ELISA are widely used in routine field inspections for this bacterium. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of the currently available monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) can detect all common A. citrulli strains. We therefore aimed to produce a panel of MAbs and to develop an ELISA-based method capable of detecting all A. citrulli strains. We used a high-throughput bead array technique to screen and characterize A. citrulli-specific MAbs produced from hybridoma clones. The hybridoma library was simultaneously screened against five A. citrulli strains (PSA, KK9, SQA, SQB and P) and the closely related bacterium, Delftia acidovorans. Three MAbs exhibiting different binding patterns to A. citrulli were used to develop an ELISA-based method called "double antibody pairs sandwich ELISA" (DAPS-ELISA). DAPS-ELISA employing mixtures of MAbs was able to specifically detect all 16 A. citrulli strains tested without cross-reactivity with other bacteria. By contrast, our previously developed MAb capture-sandwich ELISA (MC-sELISA) and a commercial test kit detected only 15 and 14 of 16 strains, respectively. The sensitivity of the DAPS-ELISA ranged from 5×105 to 1×106 CFU/mL, while those of the MC-sELISA and the commercial test kit ranged from 5×104 to 1×107 CFU/mL and 5×104 to 5×105 CFU/mL, respectively. DAPS-ELISA thus represents an alternative method enabling rapid, accurate, and inexpensive detection of all A. citrulli strains. The method can be applied to seed testing prior to planting as well as to routine field inspections.

Phage-based capacitive biosensor for Salmonella detection.

This article reports the detection of Salmonella spp. based on M13 bacteriophage in a capacitive flow injection system. Salmonella-specific M13 bacteriophage was immobilized on a polytyramine/gold surface using glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker. The M13 bacteriophage modified electrode can specifically bind to Salmonella spp. via the amino acid groups on the filamentous phage. An alkaline solution was used to break the binding between the sensing surface and the analyte to allow renewable use up to 40 times. This capacitive system provided good reproducibility with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 1.1%. A 75 µL min-1 flow rate and a 300 µL sample volume provided a wide linear range, from 2.0 × 102 to 1.0 × 107 cfu mL-1, with a detection limit of 200 cfu mL-1. Bacteria concentration can be analyzed within 40 min after the sample injection. When applied to test real samples (raw chicken meat) it provided good recoveries (100-111%). An enrichment process was also explored to increase the bacteria concentration, enabling a quantitative detection of Salmonella spp. This biosensor opens a new opportunity for the detection of pathogenic bacteria using bacteriophage.

Synthesis and Immunological Studies of the Lipomannan Backbone Glycans Found on the Surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Investigations into novel bacterial drug targets and vaccines are necessary to overcome tuberculosis. Lipomannan (LM), found on the surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is actively involved in the pathogenesis and survival of Mtb. Here, we report for the first time a rapid synthesis and biological activities of an LM glycan backbone, α(1-6)mannans. The rapid synthesis is achieved via a regio- and stereoselective ring opening polymerization to generate multiple glycosidic bonds in one simple chemical step, allowing us to finish assembling the defined polysaccharides of 5-20 units within days rather than years. Within the same pot, the polymerization is terminated by a thiol-linker to serve as a conjugation point to carrier proteins and surfaces for immunological experiments. The synthetic glycans are found to have adjuvant activities in vivo. The interactions with DC-SIGN demonstrated the significance of α(1-6)mannan motif present in LM structure. Moreover, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) showed that longer chain of synthetic α(1-6)mannans gain better lectin's binding affinity. The chemically defined components of the bacterial envelope serve as important tools to reveal the interactions of Mtb with mammalian hosts and facilitate the determination of the immunologically active molecular components.

An accurate, specific, sensitive, high-throughput method based on a microsphere immunoassay for multiplex detection of three viruses and bacterial fruit blotch bacterium in cucurbits.

To employ a microsphere immunoassay (MIA) to simultaneously detect multiple plant pathogens (potyviruses, Watermelon silver mottle virus, Melon yellow spot virus, and Acidovorax avenae subsp. citrulli) in actual plant samples, several factors need to be optimized and rigorously validated. Here, a simple extraction method using a single extraction buffer was successfully selected to detect the four pathogens in various cucurbit samples (cucumber, cantaloupe, melon, and watermelon). The extraction method and assay performance were validated with inoculated and field cucurbit samples. The MIA showed 98-99% relative accuracy, 97-100% relative specificity and 92-100% relative sensitivity when compared to commercial ELISA kits and reverse transcription PCR. In addition, the MIA was also able to accurately detect multiple-infected field samples. The results demonstrate that one common extraction method for all tested cucurbit samples could be applied to detect multiple pathogens; avoiding the need for multiple protocols to be employed. This multiplex method can therefore be instrumental for high-throughput screening of multiple plant pathogens with many advantages such as a shorter assay time (2.5h) with single assay format, a lower cost of detection ($5 vs $19.7 for 4 pathogens/sample) and less labor requirement. Its multiplex capacity can also be expanded to detect up to 50 different pathogens upon the availability of specific antibodies.

Validation of a high-throughput immunobead array technique for multiplex detection of three foodborne pathogens in chicken products.

This study rigorously evaluated a previously developed immunobead array method to simultaneously detect three important foodborne pathogens, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella spp., for its actual application in routine food testing. Due to the limitation of the detection limit of the developed method, an enrichment step was included in this study by using Campylobacter Enrichment Broth for C. jejuni and Universal Pre-enrichment Broth for L. monocytogenes and Salmonella spp.. The findings showed that the immunobead array method was capable of detecting as low as 1CFU of the pathogens spiked in the culture media after being cultured for 24h for all three pathogens. The immunobead array method was further evaluated for its pathogen detection capabilities in ready-to-eat (RTE) and ready-to-cook (RTC) chicken samples and proven to be able to detect as low as 1CFU of the pathogens spiked in the food samples after being cultured for 24h in the case of Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes and 48 h in the case of C. jejuni. The method was subsequently validated with three types of chicken products (RTE, n=30; RTC, n=20; raw chicken, n=20) and was found to give the same results as the conventional plating method. Our findings demonstrated that the previously developed immunobead array method could be used for actual food testing with minimal enrichment period of only 52 h, whereas the conventional ISO protocols for the same pathogens take 90-144 h. The immunobead array was therefore an inexpensive, rapid and simple method for the food testing.

Antibody array in a multiwell plate format for the sensitive and multiplexed detection of important plant pathogens.

The global seed market is considered to be an important industry with a total value of $10,543 million US dollars in 2012. Because plant pathogens such as bacteria and viruses cause a significant economic loss to both producers and exporters, the seed export industry urgently requires rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive testing for the pathogens to prevent disease spreading worldwide. This study developed an antibody array in a multiwell plate format to simultaneously detect four crucial plant pathogens, namely, a bacterial fruit blotch bacterium Acidovorax avenae subsp. citrulli (Aac), Chilli veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV, potyvirus), Watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV, tospovirus serogroup IV), and Melon yellow spot virus (MYSV, tospovirus). The capture antibodies specific to the pathogens were immobilized on each well at preassigned positions by an automatic microarrayer. The antibodies on the arrays specifically captured the corresponding pathogens present in the sample extracts. The presence of pathogens bound on the capture antibodies was subsequently detected by a cocktail of fluorescently conjugated secondary antibodies. The limits of detection of the developed antibody array for the detection of Aac, ChiVMV, WSMoV, and MYSV were 5 × 10(5) CFU/mL, 30 ng/mL, 1000 ng/mL, and 160 ng/mL, respectively, which were very similar to those of the conventional ELISA method. The antibody array in a multiwell plate format accurately detected plant pathogens in single and multiple detections. Moreover, this format enables easy handling of the assay at a higher speed of operation.

Implementation of microfluidic sandwich ELISA for superior detection of plant pathogens.

Rapid and economical screening of plant pathogens is a high-priority need in the seed industry. Crop quality control and disease surveillance demand early and accurate detection in addition to robustness, scalability, and cost efficiency typically required for selective breeding and certification programs. Compared to conventional bench-top detection techniques routinely employed, a microfluidic-based approach offers unique benefits to address these needs simultaneously. To our knowledge, this work reports the first attempt to perform microfluidic sandwich ELISA for Acidovorax citrulli (Ac), watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV), and melon yellow spot virus (MYSV) screening. The immunoassay occurs on the surface of a reaction chamber represented by a microfluidic channel. The capillary force within the microchannel draws a reagent into the reaction chamber as well as facilitates assay incubation. Because the underlying pad automatically absorbs excess fluid, the only operation required is sequential loading of buffers/reagents. Buffer selection, antibody concentrations, and sample loading scheme were optimized for each pathogen. Assay optimization reveals that the 20-folds lower sample volume demanded by the microchannel structure outweighs the 2- to 4-folds higher antibody concentrations required, resulting in overall 5-10 folds of reagent savings. In addition to cutting the assay time by more than 50%, the new platform offers 65% cost savings from less reagent consumption and labor cost. Our study also shows 12.5-, 2-, and 4-fold improvement in assay sensitivity for Ac, WSMoV, and MYSV, respectively. Practical feasibility is demonstrated using 19 real plant samples. Given a standard 96-well plate format, the developed assay is compatible with commercial fluorescent plate readers and readily amendable to robotic liquid handling systems for completely hand-free assay automation.

Phage display-derived binders able to distinguish Listeria monocytogenes from other Listeria species.

The objective of this study was to produce phage display-derived binders with the ability to distinguish Listeria monocytogenes from other Listeria spp., which may have potential utility to enhance detection of Listeria monocytogenes. To obtain binders with the desired binding specificity a series of surface and solution phage-display biopannings were performed. Initially, three rounds of surface biopanning against gamma-irradiated L. monocytogenes serovar 4b cells were performed followed by an additional surface biopanning round against L. monocytogenes 4b which included prior subtraction biopanning against gamma-irradiated L. innocua cells. In an attempt to further enhance binder specificity for L. monocytogenes 4b two rounds of solution biopanning were performed, both rounds included initial subtraction solution biopanning against L. innocua. Subsequent evaluations were performed on the phage clones by phage binding ELISA. All phage clones tested from the second round of solution biopanning had higher specificity for L. monocytogenes 4b than for L. innocua and three other foodborne pathogens (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni). Further evaluation with five other Listeria spp. revealed that one phage clone in particular, expressing peptide GRIADLPPLKPN, was highly specific for L. monocytogenes with at least 43-fold more binding capability to L. monocytogenes 4b than to any other Listeria sp. This proof-of-principle study demonstrates how a combination of surface, solution and subtractive biopanning was used to maximise binder specificity. L. monocytogenes-specific binders were obtained which could have potential application in novel detection tests for L. monocytogenes, benefiting both the food and medical industries.

Multiplex detection of plant pathogens using a microsphere immunoassay technology.

Plant pathogens are a serious problem for seed export, plant disease control and plant quarantine. Rapid and accurate screening tests are urgently required to protect and prevent plant diseases spreading worldwide. A novel multiplex detection method was developed based on microsphere immunoassays to simultaneously detect four important plant pathogens: a fruit blotch bacterium Acidovorax avenae subsp. citrulli (Aac), chilli vein-banding mottle virus (CVbMV, potyvirus), watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV, tospovirus serogroup IV) and melon yellow spot virus (MYSV, tospovirus). An antibody for each plant pathogen was linked on a fluorescence-coded magnetic microsphere set which was used to capture corresponding pathogen. The presence of pathogens was detected by R-phycoerythrin (RPE)-labeled antibodies specific to the pathogens. The assay conditions were optimized by identifying appropriate antibody pairs, blocking buffer, concentration of RPE-labeled antibodies and assay time. Once conditions were optimized, the assay was able to detect all four plant pathogens precisely and accurately with substantially higher sensitivity than enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) when spiked in buffer and in healthy watermelon leaf extract. The assay time of the microsphere immunoassay (1 hour) was much shorter than that of ELISA (4 hours). This system was also shown to be capable of detecting the pathogens in naturally infected plant samples and is a major advancement in plant pathogen detection.

Signal amplification of microarray-based immunoassay by optimization of nanoliposome formulations.

The use of microarray-based immunoassay is often limited by its sensitivity. To increase the sensitivities of such an immunoassay, liposome encapsulation was explored. Two different liposome formations and several preparation methods were examined to optimize encapsulation and signal-enhancing efficacy for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and antibody array. The signal amplification by liposome encapsulation was demonstrated through a detection for foodborne pathogenic Listeria. In plate-trapped antigen (PTA) ELISA, horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-loaded liposome increased signal 9-fold more than the control. Limits of detection (LODs) of HRP-encapsulated liposome were 6.4 × 10(5) and 5.5 × 10(6)CFU/ml in sandwich ELISA and antibody array, respectively. Furthermore, when chromogenic 4-chloro-1-naphthol (4-CN) substrate was used for signal development in the antibody array, the signal could be detected with the naked eye. These results suggest that the liposome encapsulation technique can have great potential for signal amplification and, therefore, for increasing assay sensitivity for various formats of immunoassay, especially microarray-based format.

Gold nanoparticles/horseradish peroxidase encapsulated polyelectrolyte nanocapsule for signal amplification in Listeria monocytogenes detection.

Bioconjugate nanocapsules were fabricated by using polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) to encapsulate gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) bearing adsorbed horseradish peroxidase (HRP). The average size of nanocapsule was in a range 150-400 nm. The efficiency of the capsules to enhance signals in an immunoassay was demonstrated by using an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect the food-borne pathogen -Listeria monocytogenes. The antibody adsorbed onto the PSS shell of the nanocapsules provided the recognition molecule. For a given quantity of antibody, the bioconjugate nanocapsules showed 30 times greater sensitivity and a shorter assay time (5 min) when compared to conventional ELISA using an HRP labelled antibody. This proof-of-concept encapsulation of HRP through PSS nanocapsules may pave the way for alternative signal enhancement strategies where sensitivity is a priority.

Comparison of techniques to screen and characterize bacteria-specific hybridomas for high-quality monoclonal antibodies selection.

Antibodies are very important materials for diagnostics. A rapid and simple hybridoma screening method will help in delivering specific monoclonal antibodies. In this study, we systematically developed the first antibody array to screen for bacteria-specific monoclonal antibodies using Listeria monocytogenes as a bacteria model. The antibody array was developed to expedite the hybridoma screening process by printing hybridoma supernatants on a glass slide coated with an antigen of interest. This screening method is based on the binding ability of supernatants to the coated antigen. The bound supernatants were detected by a fluorescently labeled anti-mouse immunoglobulin. Conditions (slide types, coating, spotting, and blocking buffers) for antibody array construction were optimized. To demonstrate its usefulness, antibody array was used to screen a sample set of 96 hybridoma supernatants in comparison to ELISA. Most of the positive results identified by ELISA and antibody array methods were in agreement except for those with low signals that were undetectable by antibody array. Hybridoma supernatants were further characterized with surface plasmon resonance to obtain additional data on the characteristics of each selected clone. While the antibody array was slightly less sensitive than ELISA, a much faster and lower cost procedure to screen clones against multiple antigens has been demonstrated.

Development of antibody array for simultaneous detection of foodborne pathogens.

Pathogenic bacterial contaminations present serious problems for food industry and public health. Rapid, accurate and affordable assays are needed. In this study, antibody arrays to simultaneously detect two foodborne pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp.) have been developed using chemiluminescent detecting system. Solid supports using nitrocellulose membrane and poly-l-lysine (PLL) glass slide were compared and optimized for antibody array construction. Many parameters including optimal concentrations of antibodies, blocking reagents, assay time, storage time, sensitivity and cross-reactivity were considered during optimization. This study revealed that the PLL slide was a more suitable support due to highly accurate results and the absence of non-specific background. Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.2) and 3% skim milk in PBS buffer were optimal spotting and blocking reagents, respectively. With the same sensitivity for bacterial detection as in a conventional ELISA (10(5)-10(6)CFU/ml for the E. coli O157:H7 and 10(6)-10(7)CFU/ml for Salmonella detections), this antibody array has advantages of a much shorter assay time of 1h and much lower required amounts of antibodies. Moreover, there was no cross-reactivity in the detection among bacteria tested in this study. Bacteria detection in food sample was feasible as demonstrated using bacteria-added milk.