Longevity and GAPDH Stability in Bivalves and Mammals: A Convenient Marker for Comparative Gerontology and Proteostasis.

BACKGROUND: Comparative aging studies, particularly those that include species of exceptional resistance to aging processes, can potentially illuminate novel senescence-retarding mechanisms. In recent years, protein homeostasis (proteostasis) has been implicated in fundamental aging processes. Here we further evaluate the relationship between proteostasis and longevity in a selection of bivalve mollusks and mammals with maximum longevities ranging from 3 to 507 years. METHODS & RESULTS: We experimentally examined proteostasis using glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as a reporter, as it is ubiquitously expressed, highly conserved, and conveniently assayed. The ability to maintain this enzymatic function was tested with increasing concentrations of the chaotropic agent urea, revealing a robust relationship with longevity in bivalves and mice. While our shortest-lived mollusk and mouse lost all activity by 2.5 and 3.5 M urea respectively, the longest-lived mollusk species, Arctica islandica, still preserved 45% of its basal function even at 6 M urea. To confirm that GAPDH proteostasis has a broad association with longevity, we also investigated a selection of primate species ranging in maximum longevity from 22 to 122 years. They outperformed the mouse at all concentrations, but among the primates results were variable at low urea doses. Still, at 6 M urea baboon and human samples retained 10% of their activity while both mouse and marmoset samples had no activity. MECHANISM OF EXCEPTIONAL STRESS RESISTANCE: To explore possible mechanisms of the exceptional stress resistance of A. islandica GAPDH we enzymatically removed post-translational glycosylation, but observed no decrease in stability. We also removed molecules smaller than 30 kDa, which includes most small heat shock proteins, but again did not compromise the exceptional stress resistance of Arctica GAPDH. CONCLUSION: While the mechanism underlying A. islandica's exceptional stress resistance remains elusive, this research identifies an experimental system that may reveal hitherto unknown mechanisms of protein homeostasis.

Fluorescence-Based Approaches for Quantitative Assessment of Protein Carbonylation, Protein Disulfides, and Protein Conformation in Biological Tissues.

Protein oxidation and misfolding have been considered as key players for progression of aging and etiology of various pathological conditions. However, few attempts have been made to develop sensitive and reproducible assays to quantify the changes in protein oxidation and alteration in structure. Here we describe three distinct fluorescence-based assays to quantify changes in protein oxidation, namely carbonylation and disulfides and alteration in protein surface hydrophobicity as a reporter for protein conformation. These techniques will provide investigators the opportunity to address important biological questions in their experimental models.

Neuronal cells but not muscle cells are resistant to oxidative stress mediated protein misfolding and cell death: role of molecular chaperones.

Our recent study in a mouse model of familial-Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (f-ALS) revealed that muscle proteins are equally sensitive to misfolding as spinal cord proteins despite the presence of low mutant CuZn-superoxide dismutase, which is considered to be the key toxic element for initiation and progression of f-ALS. More importantly, we observed differential level of heat shock proteins (Hsp's) between skeletal muscle and spinal cord tissues prior to the onset and during disease progression; spinal cord maintains significantly higher level of Hsp's compared to skeletal muscle. In this study, we report two important observations; (i) muscle cells (but not neuronal cells) are extremely vulnerable to protein misfolding and cell death during challenge with oxidative stress and (ii) muscle cells fail to mount Hsp's during challenge unlike neuronal cells. These two findings can possibly explain why muscle atrophy precedes the death of motor neurons in f-ALS mice.

Differential effects of mutant SOD1 on protein structure of skeletal muscle and spinal cord of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: role of chaperone network.

Protein misfolding is considered to be a potential contributing factor for motor neuron and muscle loss in diseases like Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Several independent studies have demonstrated using over-expressed mutated Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (mSOD1) transgenic mouse models which mimic familial ALS (f-ALS), that both muscle and motor neurons undergo degeneration during disease progression. However, it is unknown whether protein conformation of skeletal muscle and spinal cord is equally or differentially affected by mSOD1-induced toxicity. It is also unclear whether heat shock proteins (Hsp's) differentially modulate skeletal muscle and spinal cord protein structure during ALS disease progression. We report three intriguing observations utilizing the f-ALS mouse model and cell-free in vitro system; (i) muscle proteins are equally sensitive to misfolding as spinal cord proteins despite the presence of low level of soluble and absence of insoluble G93A protein aggregate, unlike in spinal cord, (ii) Hsp's levels are lower in muscle compared to spinal cord at any stage of the disease, and (iii) G93ASOD1 enzyme-induced toxicity selectively affects muscle protein conformation over spinal cord proteins. Together, these findings strongly suggest that differential chaperone levels between skeletal muscle and spinal cord may be a critical determinant for G93A-induced protein misfolding in ALS.

Elevated protein carbonylation, and misfolding in sciatic nerve from db/db and Sod1(-/-) mice: plausible link between oxidative stress and demyelination.

Diabetic peripheral polyneuropathy is associated with decrements in motor/sensory neuron myelination, nerve conduction and muscle function; however, the mechanisms of reduced myelination in diabetes are poorly understood. Chronic elevation of oxidative stress may be one of the potential determinants for demyelination as lipids and proteins are important structural constituents of myelin and highly susceptible to oxidation. The goal of the current study was to determine whether there is a link between protein oxidation/misfolding and demyelination. We chose two distinct models to test our hypothesis: 1) the leptin receptor deficient mouse (dbdb) model of diabetic polyneuropathy and 2) superoxide dismutase 1 knockout (Sod1(-/-) ) mouse model of in vivo oxidative stress. Both experimental models displayed a significant decrement in nerve conduction, increase in tail distal motor latency as well as reduced myelin thickness and fiber/axon diameter. Further biochemical studies demonstrated that oxidative stress is likely to be a potential key player in the demyelination process as both models exhibited significant elevation in protein carbonylation and alterations in protein conformation. Since peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) is a key component of myelin sheath and has been found mutated and aggregated in several peripheral neuropathies, we predicted that an increase in carbonylation and aggregation of PMP22 may be associated with demyelination in dbdb mice. Indeed, PMP22 was found to be carbonylated and aggregated in sciatic nerves of dbdb mice. Sequence-driven hydropathy plot analysis and in vitro oxidation-induced aggregation of purified PMP22 protein supported the premise for oxidation-dependent aggregation of PMP22 in dbdb mice. Collectively, these data strongly suggest for the first time that oxidation-mediated protein misfolding and aggregation of key myelin proteins may be linked to demyelination and reduced nerve conduction in peripheral neuropathies.

Elevated protein carbonylation and oxidative stress do not affect protein structure and function in the long-living naked-mole rat: a proteomic approach.

The 'oxidative stress theory of aging' predicts that aging is primarily regulated by progressive accumulation of oxidized macromolecules that cause deleterious effects to cellular homeostasis and induces a decline in physiological function. However, our reports on the detection of higher level of oxidized protein carbonyls in the soluble cellular fractions of long-living rodent naked-mole rats (NMRs, lifespan ~30yrs) compared to short-lived mice (lifespan ~3.5yrs) apparently contradicts a key tenet of the oxidative theory. As oxidation often inactivates enzyme function and induces higher-order soluble oligomers, we performed a comprehensive study to measure global protein carbonyl level in different tissues of age-matched NMRs and mice to determine if the traditional concept of oxidation mediated impairment of function and induction of higher-order structures of proteins are upheld in the NMRs. We made three intriguing observations with NMRs proteins: (1) protein carbonyl is significantly elevated across different tissues despite of its exceptional longevity, (2) enzyme function is restored despite of experiencing higher level of protein carbonylation, and (3) enzymes show lesser sensitivity to form higher-order non-reducible oligomers compared to short-living mouse proteins in response to oxidative stress. These observations were made based on the global analysis of protein carbonyl and identification of two heavily carbonylated proteins in the kidney, triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) and cytosolic peroxiredoxin (Prdx1). These un-expected intriguing observations thus strongly suggest that oxidative modification may not be the only criteria for impairment of protein and enzyme function; cellular environment is likely be the critical determining factor in this process and may be the underlying mechanism for exceptional longevity of NMR.

Protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction and muscle loss are not directly dependent on soluble and aggregation state of mSOD1 protein in skeletal muscle of ALS.

Mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (mSOD1) is often found as aggregates at the outer-membrane of mitochondria in motor neurons of various mouse models and familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (f-ALS) patients. It has been postulated that disruption of mitochondrial function by physical association of misfolded mSOD1 aggregates may actually be the trigger for initiation of degeneration of motor neurons in ALS. However, it was not clear if the same mechanism is involved in muscle degeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscles of ALS. Recent study from our laboratory show that two skeletal muscle proteins, namely creatine kinase (CK) and glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) undergo major conformational and functional changes in the f-ALS mouse model of ALS (G93A). In this paper, we report two intriguing observations which are as follows:(i) G93A protein does not form aggregates in skeletal muscle at any stages of disease process probably due to high chymotrypsin-like activity of proteasome and thus G93A protein aggregates have no direct effects on progressive loss of muscle mass and global changes in protein conformation in ALS, and (ii) the soluble G93A protein does not have direct effects on mitochondrial dysfunction as determined by quantifying the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in skeletal muscle mitochondria; instead, the proteins affected by G93A possibly affect mitochondrial ROS release. These data strongly suggest for the first time that unlike in motor neurons, the soluble and aggregation states of the G93A protein do not have direct effects on protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscle during ALS.

Attenuation of liver insoluble protein carbonyls: indicator of a longevity determinant?

Oxidative damage affects protein structure and function. Progressive accumulation of oxidized proteins is considered a putative mechanism of aging; however, empirical evidence supporting their role in aging is inconsistent. This inconsistency may reflect a failure to distinguish damage to particular cellular compartments. We found a significant reduction of protein carbonyls in the insoluble, but not in the soluble, fraction of liver tissues of long-lived compared with their short-lived counterpart. Of cellular components analyzed, only nuclear protein carbonyl level was uniformly reduced in long-lived compared with short-lived animals. This observation suggests that attenuated accumulation of protein carbonyls in the nucleus, where they can affect multiple aspects of gene expression and DNA repair, might contribute to the longevity in mammalian species.

The long lifespan of two bat species is correlated with resistance to protein oxidation and enhanced protein homeostasis.

Altered structure, and hence function, of cellular macromolecules caused by oxidation can contribute to loss of physiological function with age. Here, we tested whether the lifespan of bats, which generally live far longer than predicted by their size, could be explained by reduced protein damage relative to short-lived mice. We show significantly lower protein oxidation (carbonylation) in Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) relative to mice, and a trend for lower oxidation in samples from cave myotis bats (Myotis velifer) relative to mice. Both species of bat show in vivo and in vitro resistance to protein oxidation under conditions of acute oxidative stress. These bat species also show low levels of protein ubiquitination in total protein lysates along with reduced proteasome activity, suggesting diminished protein damage and removal in bats. Lastly, we show that bat-derived protein fractions are resistant to urea-induced protein unfolding relative to the level of unfolding detected in fractions from mice. Together, these data suggest that long lifespan in some bat species might be regulated by very efficient maintenance of protein homeostasis.

Clozapine causes oxidation of proteins involved in energy metabolism: a possible mechanism for antipsychotic-induced metabolic alterations.

Although atypical antipsychotics are widely known to induce alterations in lipid and glucose metabolism, the mechanisms by which these alterations occur remain unknown. Several recent studies have shown that atypical antipsychotics induce oxidative stress and oxidative cell injury by increasing levels of lipid and protein oxidation. In this study, a novel proteomic approach was used to identify specific proteins oxidized after clozapine treatment. Differentiated neuroblastoma SKNSH cells were treated with 0, 5 or 20 mum clozapine for 24 h and protein extracts were labelled with 6-iodoacetamide fluorescein (6-IAF). The lack of incorporation of 6-IAF to cysteine residues is an indicator of protein oxidation. Labelled proteins were exposed to 2D electrophoresis, and differential protein labelling was assessed. Increased oxidation after clozapine treatment was observed in 10 protein spots (p<0.05), although only four of them remained significant after correcting for analysis with two drug concentrations. Five proteins, corresponding to nine of the spots, were identified by HPLC-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) as mitochondrial ribosomal protein S22, mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase, calumenin, pyruvate kinase and 3-oxoacid CoA transferase. The latter four proteins play important roles in energy metabolism. These results suggest that oxidative stress may be a mechanism by which antipsychotics increase the risk for metabolic syndrome and diabetes.

Oxidation and structural perturbation of redox-sensitive enzymes in injured skeletal muscle.

Molecular events that control skeletal muscle injury and regeneration are poorly understood. However, inflammation associated with oxidative stress is considered a key player in modulating this process. To understand the consequences of oxidative stress associated with muscle injury, inflammation, and regeneration, hind-limb muscles of C57Bl/6J mice were studied after injection of cardiotoxin (CT). Within 1 day post-CT injection, polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocyte accumulation was extensive. Compared to baseline, tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity was elevated eight- and fivefold at 1 and 7 days post-CT, respectively. Ubiquitinylated protein was elevated 1 day postinjury and returned to baseline by 21 days. Cysteine residues of creatine kinase (CK) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were irreversibly oxidized within 1 day post-CT injection and were associated with protein conformational changes that fully recovered after 21 days. Importantly, protein structural alterations occurred in conjunction with significant decreases in CK activity at 1, 3, and 7 days post-CT injury. Interestingly, elevations in tissue MPO activity paralleled the time course of conformational changes in CK and GAPDH. In combination, these results demonstrate that muscle proteins in vivo are structurally and functionally altered via the generation of reactive oxygen species produced during inflammatory events after muscle injury and preceding muscle regeneration.

Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice.

Alteration of apoptotic activity has been observed in a number of tissues in aging mammals, but it remains unclear whether and/or how apoptosis may affect aging. Caspase-2 is a member of the cysteine protease family that plays a critical role in apoptosis. To understand the impact of compromised apoptosis function on mammalian aging, we conducted a comparative study on caspase-2 deficient mice and their wild-type littermates with a specific focus on the aging-related traits at advanced ages. We found that caspase-2 deficiency enhanced a number of traits commonly seen in premature aging animals. Loss of caspase-2 was associated with shortened maximum lifespan, impaired hair growth, increased bone loss, and reduced body fat content. In addition, we found that the livers of caspase-2 deficient mice had higher levels of oxidized proteins than those of age-matched wild-type mice, suggesting that caspase-2 deficiency compromised the animal's ability to clear oxidatively damaged cells. Collectively, these results suggest that caspase-2 deficiency affects aging in the mice. This study thus demonstrates for the first time that disruption of a key apoptotic gene has a significant impact on aging.

High oxidative damage levels in the longest-living rodent, the naked mole-rat.

Oxidative stress is reputed to be a significant contributor to the aging process and a key factor affecting species longevity. The tremendous natural variation in maximum species lifespan may be due to interspecific differences in reactive oxygen species generation, antioxidant defenses and/or levels of accrued oxidative damage to cellular macromolecules (such as DNA, lipids and proteins). The present study tests if the exceptional longevity of the longest living (> 28.3 years) rodent species known, the naked mole-rat (NMR, Heterocephalus glaber), is associated with attenuated levels of oxidative stress. We compare antioxidant defenses (reduced glutathione, GSH), redox status (GSH/GSSG), as well as lipid (malondialdehyde and isoprostanes), DNA (8-OHdG), and protein (carbonyls) oxidation levels in urine and various tissues from both mole-rats and similar-sized mice. Significantly lower GSH and GSH/GSSG in mole-rats indicate poorer antioxidant capacity and a surprisingly more pro-oxidative cellular environment, manifested by 10-fold higher levels of in vivo lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, mole-rats exhibit greater levels of accrued oxidative damage to lipids (twofold), DNA (approximately two to eight times) and proteins (1.5 to 2-fold) than physiologically age-matched mice, and equal to that of same-aged mice. Given that NMRs live an order of magnitude longer than predicted based on their body size, our findings strongly suggest that mechanisms other than attenuated oxidative stress explain the impressive longevity of this species.

Detection of protein carbonyls in aging liver tissue: A fluorescence-based proteomic approach.

Protein carbonyls are commonly used as a marker of protein oxidation in cells and tissues. Currently, 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine (DNPH) is widely used (spectrophotometrically or immunologically) to quantify the global carbonyl levels in proteins and identify the specific proteins that are carbonylated. We have adapted a fluorescence-based approach using fluorescein-5-thiosemicarbazide (FTC), to quantify the global protein carbonyls as well as the carbonyl levels on individual proteins in the proteome. Protein carbonyls generated in vitro were quantified by labeling the oxidized proteins with FTC followed by separating the FTC-labeled protein from free probe by gel electrophoresis. The reaction of FTC with protein carbonyls was found to be specific for carbonyl groups. We measured protein carbonyl levels in the livers of young and old mice, and found a significant increase (two-fold) in the global protein carbonyl levels with age. Using 2-D gel electrophoresis, we used this assay to directly measure the changes in protein carbonyl levels in specific proteins. We identified 12 proteins showing a greater than two-fold increase in carbonyl content (pmoles of carbonyls/microg of protein) with age. Most of the 12 proteins contained transition metal binding sites, with Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase containing the highest molar ratio of carbonyls in old mice. Thus, the fluorescence-based assay gives investigators the ability to identify potential target proteins that become oxidized under different pathological and physiological conditions.