Neuronal Induction of Bone-Fat Imbalance through Osteocyte Neuropeptide Y.

A differentiation switch of bone marrow mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (BMSCs) from osteoblasts to adipocytes contributes to age- and menopause-associated bone loss and marrow adiposity. Here it is found that osteocytes, the most abundant bone cells, promote adipogenesis and inhibit osteogenesis of BMSCs by secreting neuropeptide Y (NPY), whose expression increases with aging and osteoporosis. Deletion of NPY in osteocytes generates a high bone mass phenotype, and attenuates aging- and ovariectomy (OVX)-induced bone-fat imbalance in mice. Osteocyte NPY production is under the control of autonomic nervous system (ANS) and osteocyte NPY deletion blocks the ANS-induced regulation of BMSC fate and bone-fat balance. γ-Oryzanol, a clinically used ANS regulator, significantly increases bone formation and reverses aging- and OVX-induced osteocyte NPY overproduction and marrow adiposity in control mice, but not in mice lacking osteocyte NPY. The study suggests a new mode of neuronal control of bone metabolism through the ANS-induced regulation of osteocyte NPY.

Deficiency of Omentin-1 leads to delayed fracture healing through excessive inflammation and reduced CD31hiEmcnhi vessels.

Fracture healing is a complicated process affected by many factors, such as inflammatory responses and angiogenesis. Omentin-1 is an adipokine with anti-inflammatory properties, but whether omentin-1 affects the fracture healing process is still unknown. Here, by using global omentin-1 knockout (omentin-1-/-) mice, we demonstrated that omentin-1 deficiency resulted in delayed fracture healing in mice, accompanied by increased inflammation and osteoclast formation, and decreased production of platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and osteogenesis-promoting vessels that are strongly positive for CD31 and Endomucin (CD31hiEmcnhi) in the fracture area. In vitro, omentin-1 treatment suppressed the ability of the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-activated macrophages to stimulate multi-nuclear osteoclast formation, resulting in a significant increase in the generation of mono-nuclear preosteoclasts and PDGF-BB, a pro-angiogenic protein that is abundantly secreted by preosteoclasts. PDGF-BB significantly augmented endothelial cell proliferation, tube formation and migration, whereas direct treatment with omentin-1 did not induce obvious effects on angiogenesis activities of endothelial cells. Our study suggests a positive role of omentin-1 in fracture healing, which may be associated with the inhibition of inflammation and stimulation of preosteoclast PDGF-BB-mediated promotion of CD31hiEmcnhi vessel formation.

Extracellular Vesicles from Child Gut Microbiota Enter into Bone to Preserve Bone Mass and Strength.

Recently, the gut microbiota (GM) has been shown to be a regulator of bone homeostasis and the mechanisms by which GM modulates bone mass are still being investigated. Here, it is found that colonization with GM from children (CGM) but not from the elderly (EGM) prevents decreases in bone mass and bone strength in conventionally raised, ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporotic mice. 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals that CGM reverses the OVX-induced reduction of Akkermansia muciniphila (Akk). Direct replenishment of Akk is sufficient to correct the OVX-induced imbalanced bone metabolism and protect against osteoporosis. Mechanistic studies show that the secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs) is required for the CGM- and Akk-induced bone protective effects and these nanovesicles can enter and accumulate into bone tissues to attenuate the OVX-induced osteoporotic phenotypes by augmenting osteogenic activity and inhibiting osteoclast formation. The study identifies that gut bacterium Akk mediates the CGM-induced anti-osteoporotic effects and presents a novel mechanism underlying the exchange of signals between GM and host bone.

Ångstrom-scale silver particle-embedded carbomer gel promotes wound healing by inhibiting bacterial colonization and inflammation.

Poor wound healing after diabetes or extensive burn remains a challenging problem. Recently, we presented a physical approach to fabricate ultrasmall silver particles from Ångstrom scale to nanoscale and determined the antitumor efficacy of Ångstrom-scale silver particles (AgÅPs) in the smallest size range. Here we used the medium-sized AgÅPs (65.9 ± 31.6 Å) to prepare carbomer gel incorporated with these larger AgÅPs (L-AgÅPs-gel) and demonstrated the potent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of L-AgÅPs-gel without obvious toxicity on wound healing-related cells. Induction of reactive oxygen species contributed to L-AgÅPs-gel-induced bacterial death. Topical application of L-AgÅPs-gel to mouse skin triggered much stronger effects than the commercial silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)-gel to prevent bacterial colonization, reduce inflammation, and accelerate diabetic and burn wound healing. L-AgÅPs were distributed locally in skin without inducing systemic toxicities. This study suggests that L-AgÅPs-gel represents an effective and safe antibacterial and anti-inflammatory material for wound therapy.

Aptamer-functionalized exosomes from bone marrow stromal cells target bone to promote bone regeneration.

In elderly people particularly in postmenopausal women, inadequate bone formation by osteoblasts originating from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) for compensation of bone resorption by osteoclasts is a major reason for osteoporosis. Enhancing osteoblastic differentiation of BMSCs is a feasible therapeutic strategy for osteoporosis. Here, bone marrow stromal cell (ST)-derived exosomes (STExos) are found to remarkably enhance osteoblastic differentiation of BMSCs in vitro. However, intravenous injection of STExos is inefficient in ameliorating osteoporotic phenotypes in an ovariectomy (OVX)-induced postmenopausal osteoporosis mouse model, which may be because STExos are predominantly accumulated in the liver and lungs, but not in bone. Hereby, the STExo surface is conjugated with a BMSC-specific aptamer, which delivers STExos into BMSCs within bone marrow. Intravenous injection of the STExo-Aptamer complex enhances bone mass in OVX mice and accelerates bone healing in a femur fracture mouse model. These results demonstrate the efficiency of BMSC-specific aptamer-functionalized STExos in targeting bone to promote bone regeneration, providing a novel promising approach for the treatment of osteoporosis and fracture.

Extracellular vesicles from human urine-derived stem cells prevent osteoporosis by transferring CTHRC1 and OPG.

Osteoporosis is a debilitating bone disease affecting millions of people. Here, we used human urine-derived stem cells (USCs), which were noninvasively harvested from unlimited and easily available urine, as a "factory" to obtain extracellular vesicles (USC-EVs) and demonstrated that the systemic injection of USC-EVs effectively alleviates bone loss and maintains bone strength in osteoporotic mice by enhancing osteoblastic bone formation and suppressing osteoclastic bone resorption. More importantly, the anti-osteoporotic properties of USC-EVs are not notably disrupted by the age, gender, or health condition (with or without osteoporosis) of the USC donor. Mechanistic studies determined that collagen triple-helix repeat containing 1 (CTHRC1) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) proteins are enriched in USC-EVs and required for USC-EV-induced pro-osteogenic and anti-osteoclastic effects. Our results suggest that autologous USC-EVs represent a promising novel therapeutic agent for osteoporosis by promoting osteogenesis and inhibiting osteoclastogenesis by transferring CTHRC1 and OPG.

Inhibition of Src Homology 2 Domain-Containing Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase-2 Facilitates CD31hiEndomucinhi Blood Vessel and Bone Formation in Ovariectomized Mice.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Recently, we and others showed that the relative abundance of a specific vessel subtype, strongly positive for CD31 and Endomucin (CD31hiEmcnhi), is associated with bone formation and bone loss, and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) secreted by preosteoclasts induces the formation of the specific vessels and thereby stimulates osteogenesis. Inhibition of Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP-2) has been shown to block the fusion of preosteoclasts into mature osteoclasts. However, it is unclear whether inhibition of SHP-2 could promote preosteoclast-induced angiogenesis and then enhance bone formation. This study aimed to determine the effects of a specific SHP-2 inhibitor (NSC-87877) on CD31 hiEmcnhi vessel and bone formation. METHODS: 3-month-old C57BL/6 mice were subjected to either ovariectomy (OVX) or sham operation. OVX mice were intraperitoneally injected with NSC-87877 and the control (sham) mice were treated with an equal volume of diluents (PBS). Two months later, bone samples from mice were collected for µCT, histological, immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent analyses to assess bone mass, osteogenic and osteoclastic acitivities, as well as the densities of CD31hiEmcnhi vessels. A series of angiogenesis- related assays were performed to test the effects of NSC-87877 on the pro-angiogenic activities of preosteoclasts in vitro. RESULTS: We found that NSC-87877 is sufficient to induce bone-sparing effects in OVX-induced osteoporotic mouse model. We also found that NSC-87877 induces higher numbers of preosteoclasts and CD31hiEmcnhi vessels and higher levels of PDGF-BB in bone marrow of osteoporotic mice. In vitro assays showed that NSC-87877 prevents preosteoclast fusion, increases PDGF-BB production, and augments the pro-angiogenic abilities of preosteoclasts. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that NSC-87877 can be used as a promising therapeutic agent for osteoporosis by inhibiting osteoclast formation and promoting preosteoclast-induced angiogenesis.

Harmine enhances type H vessel formation and prevents bone loss in ovariectomized mice.

Recently, researchers identified a distinct vessel subtype called type H vessels that couple angiogenesis and osteogenesis. We previously found that type H vessels are reduced in ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporotic mice, and preosteoclasts are able to secrete platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) to stimulate type H vessel formation and thereby to promote osteogenesis. This study aimed to explore whether harmine, a ß-carboline alkaloid, is capable of preventing bone loss in OVX mice by promoting preosteoclast PDGF-BB-induced type H vessel formation. METHODS: The impact of harmine on osteoclastogenesis of RANKL-stimulated RAW264.7 cells was verified by gene expression analysis and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was conducted to test PDGF-BB production by preosteoclasts. A series of angiogenesis-related assays in vitro were performed to assess the pro-angiogenic effects of the conditioned media from RANKL-stimulated RAW264.7 cells treated with or without harmine. Meanwhile, the role of PDGF-BB in this process was determined. In vivo, OVX mice were intragastrically administrated with harmine emulsion or an equal volume of vehicle. 2 months later, bone samples were collected for µCT, histological, immunohistochemical and immunofluorescent analyses to evaluate bone mass, osteogenic and osteoclastic activities, as well as the numbers of type H vessels. Bone marrow PDGF-BB concentrations were assessed by ELISA. RESULTS: Exposure of RANKL-stimulated RAW264.7 cells to harmine enhanced the formation of preosteoclasts and the production of PDGF-BB. Harmine augmented the ability of RANKL-stimulated RAW264.7 cells to promote angiogenesis of endothelial cells, whereas the effect was blocked by PDGF-BB inhibition. In vivo, the oral administration of harmine emulsion to OVX mice resulted in enhanced trabecular bone mass and osteogenic responses, increased numbers of preosteoclasts, as well as reduced numbers of osteoclasts and fat cells. Moreover, OVX mice treated with harmine exhibited higher levels of bone marrow PDGF-BB and much more type H vessels in bone. CONCLUSION: Harmine may exert bone-sparing effects by suppression of osteoclast formation and promotion of preosteoclast PDGF-BB-induced angiogenesis.

Omentin-1 prevents inflammation-induced osteoporosis by downregulating the pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Osteoporosis is a frequent complication of chronic inflammatory diseases and increases in the pro-inflammatory cytokines make an important contribution to bone loss by promoting bone resorption and impairing bone formation. Omentin-1 is a newly identified adipocytokine that has anti-inflammatory effects, but little is known about the role of omentin-1 in inflammatory osteoporosis. Here we generated global omentin-1 knockout (omentin-1-/-) mice and demonstrated that depletion of omentin-1 induces inflammatory bone loss-like phenotypes in mice, as defined by abnormally elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, increased osteoclast formation and bone tissue destruction, as well as impaired osteogenic activities. Using an inflammatory cell model induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), we determined that recombinant omentin-1 reduces the production of pro-inflammatory factors in the TNF-α-activated macrophages, and suppresses their anti-osteoblastic and pro-osteoclastic abilities. In the magnesium silicate-induced inflammatory osteoporosis mouse model, the systemic administration of adenoviral-delivered omentin-1 significantly protects from osteoporotic bone loss and inflammation. Our study suggests that omentin-1 can be used as a promising therapeutic agent for the prevention or treatment of inflammatory bone diseases by downregulating the pro-inflammatory cytokines.

FOXA2 attenuates the epithelial to mesenchymal transition by regulating the transcription of E-cadherin and ZEB2 in human breast cancer.

The Forkhead Box A2 (FOXA2) transcription factor is required for embryonic development and for normal functions of multiple adult tissues, in which the maintained expression of FOXA2 is usually related to preventing the progression of malignant transformation. In this study, we found that FOXA2 prevented the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in human breast cancer. We observed a strong correlation between the expression levels of FOXA2 and the epithelial phenotype. Knockdown of FOXA2 promoted the mesenchymal phenotype, whereas stable overexpression of FOXA2 attenuated EMT in breast cancer cells. FOXA2 was found to endogenously bind to and stimulate the promoter of E-cadherin that is crucial for epithelial phenotype of the tumor cells. Meanwhile, FOXA2 prevented EMT of breast cancer cells by repressing the expression of EMT-related transcription factor ZEB2 through recruiting a transcriptional corepressor TLE3 to the ZEB2 promoter. The stable overexpression of FOXA2 abolished metastasis of breast cancer cells in vivo. This study confirmed that FOXA2 inhibited EMT in breast cancer cells by regulating the transcription of EMT-related genes such as E-cadherin and ZEB2.

Foxa1 contributes to the repression of Nanog expression by recruiting Grg3 during the differentiation of pluripotent P19 embryonal carcinoma cells.

Transcription factor Foxa1 plays a critical role during neural differentiation and is induced immediately after retinoic acid (RA)-initiated differentiation of pluripotent P19 embryonal carcinoma cells, correlated with the downregulated expression of pluripotency-related genes such as Nanog. To study whether Foxa1 participates in the repression of pluripotency factors, we expressed Foxa1 ectopically in P19 cells and identified that Nanog was repressed directly by Foxa1. We confirmed that Foxa1 was able to interact with Grg3, which is a transcriptional corepressor that expresses in P19 cells as well as during RA-induced P19 cell differentiation. Knockdown of Foxa1 or Grg3 delayed the downregulation of Nanog expression during RA-induced P19 cell differentiation. Furthermore, we found that Foxa1 recruited Grg3 to the Nanog promoter -2kb upstream region and switched the promoter to an inactive chromatin status represented by typical modifications in histone H3. Together, our results suggested a critical involvement of Foxa1 in the negative regulation of Nanog expression during the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells.

Foxm1 mediates LIF/Stat3-dependent self-renewal in mouse embryonic stem cells and is essential for the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells.

Activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) by leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is required for maintaining self-renewal and pluripotency of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). Here, we have confirmed transcription factor Forkhead Box m1 (Foxm1) as a LIF/Stat3 downstream target that mediates LIF/Stat3-dependent mESC self-renewal. The expression of Foxm1 relies on LIF signaling and is stimulated by Stat3 directly in mESCs. The knockdown of Foxm1 results in the loss of mESC pluripotency in the presence of LIF, and the overexpression of Foxm1 alone maintains mESC pluripotency in the absence of LIF and feeder layers, indicating that Foxm1 is a mediator of LIF/Stat3-dependent maintenance of pluripotency in mESCs. Furthermore, the inhibition of Foxm1 expression prevents the reprogramming of mouse embryonic fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), suggesting that Foxm1 is essential for the reprogramming of somatic cells into iPSCs. Our results reveal an essential function of Foxm1 in the LIF/Stat3-mediated mESC self-renewal and the generation of iPSCs.

Foxm1 transcription factor is required for maintenance of pluripotency of P19 embryonal carcinoma cells.

Transcription factor Foxm1 plays a critical role during embryonic development and its expression is repressed during retinoic acid (RA)-induced differentiation of pluripotent P19 embryonal carcinoma cells at the early stage, correlated with downregulation of expression of pluripotency markers. To study whether Foxm1 participates in the maintenance of pluripotency of stem cells, we knock down Foxm1 expression in P19 cells and identify that Oct4 are regulated directly by Foxm1. Knockdown of Foxm1 also results in spontaneous differentiation of P19 cells to mesodermal derivatives, such as muscle and adipose tissues. Maintaining Foxm1 expression prevents the downregulation of pluripotency-related transcription factors such as Oct4 and Nanog during P19 cell differentiation. Furthermore, overexpression of FOXM1 alone in RA-differentiated P19 cells (4 days) or human newborn fibroblasts restarts the expression of pluripotent genes Oct4, Nanog and Sox2. Together, our results suggest a critical involvement of Foxm1 in maintenance of stem cell pluripotency.