Aldose reductase inhibition decelerates optic nerve degeneration by alleviating retinal microglia activation.

As part of the central nervous system (CNS), retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons are the only neurons in the retina that transmit visual signals from the eye to the brain via the optic nerve (ON). Unfortunately, they do not regenerate upon injury in mammals. In ON trauma, retinal microglia (RMG) become activated, inducing inflammatory responses and resulting in axon degeneration and RGC loss. Since aldose reductase (AR) is an inflammatory response mediator highly expressed in RMG, we investigated if pharmacological inhibition of AR can attenuate ocular inflammation and thereby promote RGC survival and axon regeneration after ON crush (ONC). In vitro, we discovered that Sorbinil, an AR inhibitor, attenuates BV2 microglia activation and migration in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) treatments. In vivo, Sorbinil suppressed ONC-induced Iba1 + microglia/macrophage infiltration in the retina and ON and promoted RGC survival. Moreover, Sorbinil restored RGC function and delayed axon degeneration one week after ONC. RNA sequencing data revealed that Sorbinil protects the retina from ONC-induced degeneration by suppressing inflammatory signaling. In summary, we report the first study demonstrating that AR inhibition transiently protects RGC and axon from degeneration, providing a potential therapeutic strategy for optic neuropathies.

Actin filaments form a size-dependent diffusion barrier around centrosomes.

The centrosome, a non-membranous organelle, constrains various soluble molecules locally to execute its functions. As the centrosome is surrounded by various dense components, we hypothesized that it may be bordered by a putative diffusion barrier. After quantitatively measuring the trapping kinetics of soluble proteins of varying size at centrosomes by a chemically inducible diffusion trapping assay, we find that centrosomes are highly accessible to soluble molecules with a Stokes radius of less than 5.8 nm, whereas larger molecules rarely reach centrosomes, indicating the existence of a size-dependent diffusion barrier at centrosomes. The permeability of this barrier is tightly regulated by branched actin filaments outside of centrosomes and it decreases during anaphase when branched actin temporally increases. The actin-based diffusion barrier gates microtubule nucleation by interfering with γ-tubulin ring complex recruitment. We propose that actin filaments spatiotemporally constrain protein complexes at centrosomes in a size-dependent manner.

The Role of Aldose Reductase in Beta-Amyloid-Induced Microglia Activation.

The occurrence of Alzheimer's disease has been associated with the accumulation of beta-amyloid (ß-amyloid) plaques. These plaques activate microglia to secrete inflammatory molecules, which damage neurons in the brain. Thus, understanding the underlying mechanism of microglia activation can provide a therapeutic strategy for alleviating microglia-induced neuroinflammation. The aldose reductase (AR) enzyme catalyzes the reduction of glucose to sorbitol in the polyol pathway. In addition to mediating diabetic complications in hyperglycemic environments, AR also helps regulate inflammation in microglia. However, little is known about the role of AR in ß-amyloid-induced inflammation in microglia and subsequent neuronal death. In this study, we confirmed that AR inhibition attenuates increased ß-amyloid-induced reactive oxygen species and tumor necrosis factor α secretion by suppressing ERK signaling in BV2 cells. In addition, we are the first to report that AR inhibition reduced the phagocytotic capability and cell migration of BV2 cells in response to ß-amyloid. To further investigate the protective role of the AR inhibitor sorbinil in neurons, we co-cultured ß-amyloid-induced microglia with stem cell-induced neurons. sorbinil ameliorated neuronal damage in both cells in the co-culture system. In summary, our findings reveal AR regulation of microglia activation as a novel therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease.

Cerebral Complications of Snakebite Envenoming: Case Studies.

There are an estimated 5.4 million snakebite cases every year. People with snakebite envenoming suffer from severe complications, or even death. Although some review articles cover several topics of snakebite envenoming, a review of the cases regarding cerebral complications, especially rare syndromes, is lacking. Here, we overview 35 cases of snakebite by front-fanged snakes, including Bothrops, Daboia, Cerastes, Deinagkistrodon, Trimeresurus, and Crotalus in the Viperidae family; Bungarus and Naja in the Elapidae family, and Homoroselaps (rare cases) in the Lamprophiidae family. We also review three rare cases of snakebite by rear-fanged snakes, including Oxybelis and Leptodeira in the Colubridae family. In the cases of viper bites, most patients (17/24) were diagnosed with ischemic stroke and intracranial hemorrhage, leading to six deaths. We then discuss the potential underlying molecular mechanisms that cause these complications. In cases of elapid bites, neural, cardiac, and ophthalmic disorders are the main complications. Due to the small amount of venom injection and the inability to deep bite, all the rear-fanged snakebites did not develop any severe complications. To date, antivenom (AV) is the most effective therapy for snakebite envenoming. In the six cases of viper and elapid bites that did not receive AV, three cases (two by viper and one by elapid) resulted in death. This indicates that AV treatment is the key to survival after a venomous snakebite. Lastly, we also discuss several studies of therapeutic agents against snakebite-envenoming-induced complications, which could be potential adjuvants along with AV treatment. This article organizes the diagnosis of hemotoxic and neurotoxic envenoming, which may help ER doctors determine the treatment for unidentified snakebite.

BARD1 is an ATPase activating protein for OLA1.

OLA1 is a P-loop ATPase, implicated in centrosome duplication through the interactions with tumor suppressors BRCA1 and BARD1. Disruption of the interaction of OLA1 with BARD1 results in centrosome amplification. However, the molecular interplay and mechanism of the OLA1-BARD1 complex remain elusive. Here, we use a battery of biophysical, biochemical, and structural analyses to elucidate the molecular basis of the OLA1-BARD1 interaction. Our structural and enzyme kinetics analyses show this nucleotide-dependent interaction enhances the ATPase activity of OLA1 by increasing the turnover number (kcat). Unlike canonical GTPase activating proteins that act directly on the catalytic G domain, the BARD1 BRCT domain binds to the OLA1 TGS domain via a highly conserved BUDR motif. A cancer related mutation V695L on BARD1 is known to associate with centrosome abnormality. The V695L mutation reduces the BARD1 BRCT-mediated activation of OLA1. Crystallographic snapshot of the BRCT V695L mutant at 1.88 Å reveals this mutation perturbs the OLA1 binding site, resulting in reduced interaction. Altogether, our findings suggest the BARD1 BRCT domain serves as an ATPase activating protein to control OLA1 allosterically.

Helicobacter pylori GmhB enzyme involved in ADP-heptose biosynthesis pathway is essential for lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and bacterial virulence.

Helicobacter pylori infection is linked to serious gastric-related diseases including gastric cancer. However, current therapies for treating H. pylori infection are challenged by the increased antibiotic resistance of H. pylori. Therefore, it is in an urgent need to identify novel targets for drug development against H. pylori infection. In this study, HP0860 gene from H. pylori predicted to encode a D-glycero-D-manno-heptose-1,7-bisphosphate phosphatase (GmhB) involved in the synthesis of ADP-L-glycero-D-manno-heptose for the assembly of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the inner core region was cloned and characterized. We reported HP0860 protein is monomeric and functions as a phosphatase by converting D-glycero-D-manno-heptose-1,7-bisphosphate into D-glycero-D-manno-heptose-1-phosphate with a preference for the ß-anomer over the α-anomer of sugar phosphate substrates. Subsequently, a HP0860 knockout mutant and its complementary mutant were constructed and their phenotypic properties were examined. HP0860 knockout mutant contained both mature and immature forms of LPS and could still induce significant IL-8 secretion after gastric AGS cell infection, suggesting other enzymatic activities in HP0860 knockout mutant might be able to partially compensate for the loss of HP0860 activity. In addition, HP0860 knockout mutant was much more sensitive to antibiotic novobiocin, had decreased adherence abilities, and caused less classic hummingbird phenotype on the infected AGS cells, indicating H. pylori lacking HP0860 is less virulent. Furthermore, the disruption of HP0860 gene altered the sorting of cargo proteins into outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). The above findings confirm the importance of HP0860 in LPS core biosynthesis and shed light on therapeutic intervention against H. pylori infection.

An essential role of acetyl coenzyme A in the catalytic cycle of insect arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase.

Acetyl coenzyme A (Ac-CoA)-dependent N-acetylation is performed by arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) and is important in many biofunctions. AANAT catalyzes N-acetylation through an ordered sequential mechanism in which cofactor (Ac-CoA) binds first, with substrate binding afterward. No ternary structure containing AANAT, cofactor, and substrate was determined, meaning the details of substrate binding and product release remain unclear. Here, two ternary complexes of dopamine N-acetyltransferase (Dat) before and after N-acetylation were solved at 1.28 Å and 1.36 Å resolution, respectively. Combined with the structures of Dat in apo form and Ac-CoA bound form, we addressed each stage in the catalytic cycle. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), crystallography, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) were utilized to analyze the product release. Our data revealed that Ac-CoA regulates the conformational properties of Dat to form the catalytic site and substrate binding pocket, while the release of products is facilitated by the binding of new Ac-CoA.

Multi-Sensor Fusion Approach for Improving Map-Based Indoor Pedestrian Localization.

The interior space of large-scale buildings, such as hospitals, with a variety of departments, is so complicated that people may easily lose their way while visiting. Difficulties in wayfinding can cause stress, anxiety, frustration and safety issues to patients and families. An indoor navigation system including route planning and localization is utilized to guide people from one place to another. The localization of moving subjects is a critical-function component in an indoor navigation system. Pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR) is a technology that is widely employed for localization due to the advantage of being independent of infrastructure. To improve the accuracy of the localization system, combining different technologies is one of the solutions. In this study, a multi-sensor fusion approach is proposed to improve the accuracy of the PDR system by utilizing a light sensor, Bluetooth and map information. These simple mechanisms are applied to deal with the issue of accumulative error by identifying edge and sub-edge information from both Bluetooth and the light sensor. Overall, the accumulative error of the proposed multi-sensor fusion approach is below 65 cm in different cases of light arrangement. Compared to inertial sensor-based PDR system, the proposed multi-sensor fusion approach can improve 90% of the localization accuracy in an environment with an appropriate density of ceiling-mounted lamps. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach can improve the localization accuracy by utilizing multi-sensor data and fulfill the feasibility requirements of localization in an indoor navigation system.

Allosteric communication in the dynein motor domain.

Dyneins power microtubule motility using ring-shaped, AAA-containing motor domains. Here, we report X-ray and electron microscopy (EM) structures of yeast dynein bound to different ATP analogs, which collectively provide insight into the roles of dynein's two major ATPase sites, AAA1 and AAA3, in the conformational change mechanism. ATP binding to AAA1 triggers a cascade of conformational changes that propagate to all six AAA domains and cause a large movement of the "linker," dynein's mechanical element. In contrast to the role of AAA1 in driving motility, nucleotide transitions in AAA3 gate the transmission of conformational changes between AAA1 and the linker, suggesting that AAA3 acts as a regulatory switch. Further structural and mutational studies also uncover a role for the linker in regulating the catalytic cycle of AAA1. Together, these results reveal how dynein's two major ATP-binding sites initiate and modulate conformational changes in the motor domain during motility.

Phase transitions in the assembly of multivalent signalling proteins.

Cells are organized on length scales ranging from ångström to micrometres. However, the mechanisms by which ångström-scale molecular properties are translated to micrometre-scale macroscopic properties are not well understood. Here we show that interactions between diverse synthetic, multivalent macromolecules (including multi-domain proteins and RNA) produce sharp liquid-liquid-demixing phase separations, generating micrometre-sized liquid droplets in aqueous solution. This macroscopic transition corresponds to a molecular transition between small complexes and large, dynamic supramolecular polymers. The concentrations needed for phase transition are directly related to the valency of the interacting species. In the case of the actin-regulatory protein called neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) interacting with its established biological partners NCK and phosphorylated nephrin, the phase transition corresponds to a sharp increase in activity towards an actin nucleation factor, the Arp2/3 complex. The transition is governed by the degree of phosphorylation of nephrin, explaining how this property of the system can be controlled to regulatory effect by kinases. The widespread occurrence of multivalent systems suggests that phase transitions may be used to spatially organize and biochemically regulate information throughout biology.

Mechanism of actin filament nucleation by the bacterial effector VopL.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus protein L (VopL) is an actin nucleation factor that induces stress fibers when injected into eukaryotic host cells. VopL contains three N-terminal Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2 (WH2) motifs and a unique VopL C-terminal domain (VCD). We describe crystallographic and biochemical analyses of filament nucleation by VopL. The WH2 element of VopL does not nucleate on its own and requires the VCD for activity. The VCD forms a U-shaped dimer in the crystal, stabilized by a terminal coiled coil. Dimerization of the WH2 motifs contributes strongly to nucleation activity, as do contacts of the VCD to actin. Our data lead to a model in which VopL stabilizes primarily lateral (short-pitch) contacts between actin monomers to create the base of a two-stranded filament. Stabilization of lateral contacts may be a common feature of actin filament nucleation by WH2-based factors.

Insulin receptor tyrosine kinase substrate links the E. coli O157:H7 actin assembly effectors Tir and EspF(U) during pedestal formation.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 translocates 2 effectors to trigger localized actin assembly in mammalian cells, resulting in filamentous actin "pedestals." One effector, the translocated intimin receptor (Tir), is localized in the plasma membrane and clustered upon binding the bacterial outer membrane protein intimin. The second, the proline-rich effector EspF(U) (aka TccP) activates the actin nucleation-promoting factor WASP/N-WASP, and is recruited to sites of bacterial attachment by a mechanism dependent on an Asn-Pro-Tyr (NPY(458)) sequence in the Tir C-terminal cytoplasmic domain. Tir, EspF(U), and N-WASP form a complex, but neither EspF(U) nor N-WASP bind Tir directly, suggesting involvement of another protein in complex formation. Screening of the mammalian SH3 proteome for the ability to bind EspF(U) identified the SH3 domain of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase substrate (IRTKS), a factor known to regulate the cytoskeleton. Derivatives of WASP, EspF(U), and the IRTKS SH3 domain were capable of forming a ternary complex in vitro, and replacement of the C terminus of Tir with the IRTKS SH3 domain resulted in a fusion protein competent for actin assembly in vivo. A second domain of IRTKS, the IRSp53/MIM homology domain (IMD), bound to Tir in a manner dependent on the C-terminal NPY(458) sequence, thereby recruiting IRTKS to sites of bacterial attachment. Ectopic expression of either the IRTKS SH3 domain or the IMD, or genetic depletion of IRTKS, blocked pedestal formation. Thus, enterohemorrhagic E. coli translocates 2 effectors that bind to distinct domains of a common host factor to promote the formation of a complex that triggers robust actin assembly at the plasma membrane.

Hierarchical regulation of WASP/WAVE proteins.

Members of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family control actin dynamics in eukaryotic cells by stimulating the actin nucleating activity of the Arp2/3 complex. The prevailing paradigm for WASP regulation invokes allosteric relief of autoinhibition by diverse upstream activators. Here we demonstrate an additional level of regulation that is superimposed upon allostery: dimerization increases the affinity of active WASP species for Arp2/3 complex by up to 180-fold, greatly enhancing actin assembly by this system. This finding explains a large and apparently disparate set of observations under a common mechanistic framework. These include WASP activation by the bacterial effector EspFu and a large number of SH3 domain proteins, the effects on WASP of membrane localization/clustering and assembly into large complexes, and cooperativity between different family members. Allostery and dimerization act in hierarchical fashion, enabling WASP/WAVE proteins to integrate different classes of inputs to produce a wide range of cellular actin responses.

Repetitive N-WASP-binding elements of the enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli effector EspF(U) synergistically activate actin assembly.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) generate F-actin-rich adhesion pedestals by delivering effector proteins into mammalian cells. These effectors include the translocated receptor Tir, along with EspF(U), a protein that associates indirectly with Tir and contains multiple peptide repeats that stimulate actin polymerization. In vitro, the EspF(U) repeat region is capable of binding and activating recombinant derivatives of N-WASP, a host actin nucleation-promoting factor. In spite of the identification of these important bacterial and host factors, the underlying mechanisms of how EHEC so potently exploits the native actin assembly machinery have not been clearly defined. Here we show that Tir and EspF(U) are sufficient for actin pedestal formation in cultured cells. Experimental clustering of Tir-EspF(U) fusion proteins indicates that the central role of the cytoplasmic portion of Tir is to promote clustering of the repeat region of EspF(U). Whereas clustering of a single EspF(U) repeat is sufficient to bind N-WASP and generate pedestals on cultured cells, multi-repeat EspF(U) derivatives promote actin assembly more efficiently. Moreover, the EspF(U) repeats activate a protein complex containing N-WASP and the actin-binding protein WIP in a synergistic fashion in vitro, further suggesting that the repeats cooperate to stimulate actin polymerization in vivo. One explanation for repeat synergy is that simultaneous engagement of multiple N-WASP molecules can enhance its ability to interact with the actin nucleating Arp2/3 complex. These findings define the minimal set of bacterial effectors required for pedestal formation and the elements within those effectors that contribute to actin assembly via N-WASP-Arp2/3-mediated signaling pathways.

Structural mechanism of WASP activation by the enterohaemorrhagic E. coli effector EspF(U).

During infection, enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) takes over the actin cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells by injecting the EspF(U) protein into the host cytoplasm. EspF(U) controls actin by activating members of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family. Here we show that EspF(U) binds to the autoinhibitory GTPase binding domain (GBD) in WASP proteins and displaces it from the activity-bearing VCA domain (for verprolin homology, central hydrophobic and acidic regions). This interaction potently activates WASP and neural (N)-WASP in vitro and induces localized actin assembly in cells. In the solution structure of the GBD-EspF(U) complex, EspF(U) forms an amphipathic helix that binds the GBD, mimicking interactions of the VCA domain in autoinhibited WASP. Thus, EspF(U) activates WASP by competing directly for the VCA binding site on the GBD. This mechanism is distinct from that used by the eukaryotic activators Cdc42 and SH2 domains, which globally destabilize the GBD fold to release the VCA. Such diversity of mechanism in WASP proteins is distinct from other multimodular systems, and may result from the intrinsically unstructured nature of the isolated GBD and VCA elements. The structural incompatibility of the GBD complexes with EspF(U) and Cdc42/SH2, plus high-affinity EspF(U) binding, enable EHEC to hijack the eukaryotic cytoskeletal machinery effectively.

Arp2/3-independent assembly of actin by Vibrio type III effector VopL.

Microbial pathogens use a variety of mechanisms to disrupt the actin cytoskeleton during infection. Vibrio parahaemolyticus (V. para) is a Gram-negative bacterium that causes gastroenteritis, and new pandemic strains are emerging throughout the world. Analysis of the V. para genome revealed a type III secretion system effector, VopL, encoding three Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2 domains that are interspersed with three proline-rich motifs. Infection of HeLa cells with V. para induces the formation of long actin fibers in a VopL-dependent manner. Transfection of VopL promotes the assembly of actin stress fibers. In vitro, recombinant VopL potently induces assembly of actin filaments that grow at their barbed ends, independent of eukaryotic factors. Vibrio VopL is predicted to be a bacterial virulence factor that disrupts actin homeostasis during an enteric infection of the host.

Lipid binding in rice nonspecific lipid transfer protein-1 complexes from Oryza sativa.

Nonspecific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTPs) facilitate the transfer of phospholipids, glycolipids, fatty acids and steroids between membranes, with wide-ranging binding affinities. Three crystal structures of rice nsLTP1 from Oryza sativa, complexed with myristic (MYR), palmitic (PAL) or stearic acid (STE) were determined. The overall structures of the rice nsLTP1 complexes belong to the four-helix bundle folding with a long C-terminal loop. The nsLTP1-MYR and the nsLTP1-STE complexes bind a single fatty acid while the nsLTP1-PAL complex binds two molecules of fatty acids. The C-terminal loop region is elastic in order to accommodate a diverse range of lipid molecules. The lipid molecules interact with the nsLTP1-binding cavity mainly with hydrophobic interactions. Significant conformational changes were observed in the binding cavity and the C-terminal loop of the rice nsLTP1 upon lipid binding.