Effects of stress, acute alcohol treatment, or both on pre-pulse inhibition in high- and low-alcohol preferring mice.

Pre-pulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex (PPI) is a measure of sensorimotor gating frequently used to assess information processing in both humans and rodents. Both alcohol and stress exposure can modulate PPI, making it possible to assess how stress and alcohol interact to influence information processing. Humans with an increased genetic risk for alcoholism are more reactive to stressful situations compared to those without a family history, and alcohol may have stress-dampening effects for those with high genetic risk. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of stress, acute alcohol exposure, or both on PPI in male and female mice selectively bred for high- (HAP2) and low- (LAP2) alcohol preference. Experiment 1 assessed the effects of various doses of acute alcohol on PPI. Experiments 2 and 3 assessed the effect of 10 days of restraint stress on subsequent PPI tested at 30 min (Experiment 2) or 24 h (Experiment 3) following the termination of stress exposure. Experiment 3 also examined the effects of acute alcohol treatment (0.75 g/kg) on PPI in mice previously exposed to stress or no stress. Results indicate that 0.75 and 1.0 g/kg doses of alcohol increased PPI in HAP2 but not LAP2 mice. When PPI was tested 30 min after stress exposure, stressed HAP2 mice showed a trend toward decreased PPI and stressed LAP2 mice showed a trend toward increased PPI. The combination of stress and alcohol treatment did not alter PPI in either line 24 h following the termination of stress exposure, suggesting that alcohol does not ameliorate the effect of stress on PPI. Stressed LAP2 mice had increased basal circulating corticosterone on the final stress exposure day compared to non-stressed LAP2 mice, and no difference was found between stressed and non-stressed HAP2 mice. The results suggest that high genetic risk for alcoholism may be related to increased sensitivity to alcohol and stress effects on PPI, and this sensitivity could signify an endophenotype for increased genetic risk to develop alcoholism.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors containing α6 subunits contribute to alcohol reward-related behaviours.

Evidence is emerging that neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system are involved in mediating the reinforcing effects of alcohol. Midbrain DA neurons express high levels of α6 subunit-containing nAChRs that modulate DA transmission, implicating their involvement in reward-related behaviours. This study assessed the role of α6-containing nAChRs in modulating alcohol reward using transgenic mice expressing mutant, hypersensitive α6 nAChR subunits (α6L9'S mice). α6L9'S mice and littermate controls were tested in three well-established models of alcohol reward: 24-h two-bottle choice drinking, drinking in the dark (DID), and conditioned place preference (CPP). Confocal microscopy and patch-clamp electrophysiology were used to show the localization and function of hypersensitive α6 subunit-containing nAChRs. Results indicate that female α6L9'S mice showed significantly higher alcohol intake at low concentrations of alcohol (3% and 6%) in the two-bottle choice procedure. Both male and female α6L9'S mice drank significantly more in the DID procedure and displayed an alcohol-induced place preference using a low dose of alcohol (0.5 g/kg) that was ineffective in littermate controls. Confocal microscopy showed that α6 subunit-containing nAChRs are selectively expressed on ventral tegmental area (VTA) DAergic, but not GABAergic neurons. Patch-clamp electrophysiology showed that VTA DA neurons of α6L9'S mice are hypersensitive to ACh. Collectively, these results suggest that α6L9'S mice are more sensitive to the rewarding effects of alcohol, and suggest that VTA α6 subunit-containing nAChRs modulate alcohol reward. Thus, α6 subunit-containing nAChRs may be a promising therapeutic target for treatment of alcohol use disorders.

Inverse genetic association between alcohol preference and severity of alcohol withdrawal in two sets of rat lines selected for the same phenotype.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of the present study was to determine whether alcohol-naïve rats selectively bred for alcohol preference or nonpreference differ in alcohol withdrawal severity using two sets of rat lines selectively bred for the same phenotype. METHODS: Alcohol-naïve male rats from the high alcohol drinking (HAD1) and low alcohol drinking (LAD1) rat lines and from the alcohol preferring (P) and nonpreferring (NP) rat lines received an intragastric infusion of alcohol (4.0 g/20.3 ml/kg; 25% v/v) or an equal volume of water once a day for 10 consecutive days. Alcohol withdrawal severity was assessed at using a behavioral rating scale and a radiant heat assay measured analgesia at 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 24 hrs following infusion of alcohol or water on days 1, 5, and 10 of treatment. RESULTS: Data were analyzed using body weight as a co-factor to correct for differences in body weight between the HAD1/LAD1 and P/NP lines. Acute (1 day) but not repeated alcohol treatment (5 or 10 days) produced mild behavioral signs of withdrawal in LAD1 but not in HAD1 rats. HAD1 and LAD1 rats showed alcohol-induced analgesia after 1 and 5 days of alcohol treatment that disappeared by day 10 in both lines. Repeated alcohol treatment (5 days) produced mild behavioral signs of withdrawal in NP but not in P rats. Neither P nor NP rats showed alcohol-induced analgesia after 1, 5, or 10 days of alcohol treatment. CONCLUSIONS: An inverse genetic association was found between alcohol preference and severity of alcohol withdrawal in two sets of rat lines selected for the same phenotype. The pattern of alcohol withdrawal that emerged over the course of the 10 days of alcohol treatment differed between the two lines selected for low alcohol drinking (LAD1 and NP), suggesting that unique sets of genes may influence alcohol withdrawal severity in the two lines.

Effects of acamprosate on sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol in mice selectively bred for high and low alcohol preference.

Sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of drugs is thought to play an important role in the development of drug-seeking behaviour. We hypothesized that the ability of acamprosate to reduce alcohol relapse rates in recovering alcoholics, and alcohol consumption in rodents, may be related to its ability to reduce sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether acamprosate reduces the expression of sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol in lines of mice selectively bred for high (HAP) and low (LAP) alcohol preference. Mice were given six intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of alcohol (3 g/kg) or saline at 48 h intervals. The test for sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol consisted of a challenge dose of 2 g/kg i.p. alcohol followed immediately by assessment of locomotor activity for 20 min. Mice were pretreated with either saline or acamprosate (400 mg/kg) at 14 h and again at 2 h before the alcohol challenge. Both HAP and LAP mice showed sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol. Acamprosate reduced the expression of sensitization to the locomotor-stimulant effects of alcohol in HAP but not LAP mice. These data suggest complex effects of acamprosate on alcohol-stimulated locomotor activity that depend on genotype.

Alcohol place preference conditioning in high- and low-alcohol preferring selected lines of mice.

High- and low-alcohol preferring (HAP and LAP) selected lines of mice diverge greatly in free-choice alcohol consumption. This study investigated whether the lines differ in a measure of alcohol reward not dependent on drinking, specifically place conditioning. Mice were subjected to a differential conditioning procedure in which four alcohol-paired CS+ trials on one floor cue (0, 1.5, 3, or 4 g/kg; ns=20-24) alternated with four saline-paired CS- trials on a different floor cue. Testing was on a split floor, half CS+ and half CS-. HAP and LAP mice showed no preference at 0 g/kg, and equivalent, moderate preference at 1.5 and 3 g/kg alcohol. At 4 g/kg, LAP, but not HAP mice showed an increase in preference. The present findings imply greater efficacy of alcohol preference conditioning in LAP mice, but do not speak for line differences in sensitivity. Results do not support the hypothesis that selection for high drinking yields greater efficacy of alcohol as a reinforcer when reward is measured using a technique that does not rely on drinking. Low drinking in LAP mice may emerge from innate taste avoidance of alcohol as a result of selective breeding for low preference, which prevents them from encountering alcohol's rewarding, pharmacological effects.

GABA(A) receptors modulate ethanol-induced conditioned place preference and taste aversion in mice.

RATIONALE: GABA(A) receptor antagonists have been shown to reduce ethanol self-administration and ethanol-induced conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in rats, suggesting a role for the GABA(A) receptor in modulating ethanol's motivational effects. OBJECTIVES: The present experiments examined the effects of the GABA(A) receptor antagonists, bicuculline and picrotoxin, on the acquisition of ethanol-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) and CTA in male DBA/2J mice. METHODS: Mice in the CPP experiments received four pairings of ethanol (2 g/kg) with a distinctive floor stimulus for a 5-min conditioning session (CS+ sessions). During CS+ sessions, mice also received bicuculline (0, 1.0, 3.0, or 5.0 mg/kg) or picrotoxin (2.0 mg/kg) before an injection of ethanol. On intervening days (CS- sessions), the pretreatment injection was always vehicle followed by saline injections that were paired with a different floor type. For the preference test, all mice received saline injections and were placed on a half grid and half hole floor for a 60-min session. For the CTA experiments, mice were adapted to a 2-h per day water restriction regimen followed by five conditioning trials every 48 h. During conditioning trials, subjects received an injection of vehicle, bicuculline (0.5 and 2.0 mg/kg), or picrotoxin (0.75 and 2.5 mg/kg) before injection of 2 g/kg ethanol or saline following 1-h access to a saccharin solution. RESULTS: Both picrotoxin and the lowest dose of bicuculline (1.0 mg/kg) significantly increased the magnitude of CPP relative to vehicle-treated controls. Picrotoxin alone did not produce place conditioning. Ethanol-stimulated locomotor activity was significantly reduced during conditioning trials with picrotoxin and the higher doses of bicuculline (3.0 and 5.0 mg/kg). Bicuculline did not alter ethanol-induced CTA; however, picrotoxin dose-dependently increased the magnitude of ethanol-induced CTA. Bicuculline and picrotoxin did not produce CTA when administered alone. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, these results suggest that blockade of GABA(A) receptors with bicuculline and picrotoxin enhances ethanol's motivational effects in the CPP paradigm; however, only picrotoxin enhances ethanol's motivational effects in the CTA paradigm.

Baclofen alters ethanol-stimulated activity but not conditioned place preference or taste aversion in mice.

The present experiments examined the effects of the GABA(B) receptor agonist, baclofen, on the acquisition of ethanol-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) and conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in male DBA/2J mice. Mice in the CPP experiment received four pairings of ethanol (2g/kg) with a distinctive floor stimulus for a 5-min conditioning session (CS+ sessions). On intervening days (CS- sessions), mice received saline injections paired with a different floor type. On CS+ days, mice also received one of four doses of baclofen (0.0. 2.5, 5.0, or 7.5 mg/kg) 15 min before an injection of ethanol. For the preference test, all mice received saline injections, and were placed on a half-grid and half-hole floor for a 60-min session. Baclofen dose dependently reduced ethanol-stimulated activity, but did not alter the magnitude of ethanol-induced CPP at any dose. For the CTA experiment, mice were adapted to a 2-h per day water restriction regimen followed by five conditioning trials every 48 h. During conditioning trials, subjects received an injection of saline or baclofen (2.0 and 6.0 mg/kg) 15 min before injection of 2 g/kg ethanol or saline following 1-h access to a saccharin solution. Baclofen did not alter the magnitude of ethanol-induced CTA at any dose. In addition, baclofen alone did not produce a CTA. Overall, these studies show that activation of GABA(B) receptors with baclofen reduces ethanol-induced locomotor activation, but does not alter ethanol's rewarding or aversive effects in the CPP and CTA paradigms in DBA/2J mice.

Ontogeny of ethanol-induced locomotor activity and hypothermia differences in selectively bred FAST and SLOW mice.

The replicate lines of selectively bred FAST and SLOW mice differ in locomotor response to 2 g/kg ethanol (EtOH). FAST mice show enhanced locomotion; SLOW mice exhibit no change or locomotor depression. Little is known about the responses of FAST and SLOW mice to EtOH during development. We assessed the locomotor responses of FAST and SLOW mice at postnatal days (P) 10, 15, 30, and 60. A genetically correlated response, EtOH-induced hypothermia, was also investigated. Although all animals demonstrated their respective selection phenotypes in adulthood, developing FAST mice exhibited ethanol stimulation by P15 (replicate 1) or P30 (replicate 2). At these ages, responses of FAST mice differed from those of SLOW. The stimulant response in FAST mice was adult-like at P30. EtOH-induced hypothermia was seen in SLOW mice by P15. These data suggest that sensitivity to the locomotor stimulant effects of EtOH changes during postnatal development, and may mirror developmental profiles for certain neurotransmitter systems.

Ethanol reward and aversion in mice bred for sensitivity to ethanol withdrawal.

The present study examined mice selectively bred for sensitivity to ethanol withdrawal for differences in the conditioned place preference (CPP) and conditioned taste aversion (CTA) paradigms. Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) and Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant (WSR) mice and High Alcohol Withdrawal (HAW) and Low Alcohol Withdrawal (LAW) mice were selectively bred for differences in chronic and acute ethanol withdrawal, respectively. For the CPP experiment, male HAW and LAW (generation 5) mice received four pairings of ethanol (2 g/kg), with a distinctive floor stimulus. On intervening days, mice received saline paired with an alternate floor type. During the preference test, all mice received an injection of saline before 60-min access to both floor types. HAW mice showed conditioned preference for the ethanol-paired floor, whereas LAW mice did not. For the CTA experiments, male HAW, LAW, WSP, and WSR mice were adapted to a 2-hr/day water restriction regimen and subsequently received ethanol injections (0, 2, 2.5, or 4 g/kg, i.p.) immediately after 1-hr access to a NaCl-flavored solution. Dose-dependent reductions in NaCl intake reflected the development of CTA in both HAW/LAW and WSP/WSR lines. However, a smaller magnitude of CTA was observed in WSP mice relative to WSR mice after the first ethanol-NaCl pairing. WSP/WSR mice showed similar reductions of NaCl intake on subsequent conditioning trials. Overall, these data suggest that HAW mice selectively bred for high sensitivity to acute ethanol withdrawal are more sensitive to the rewarding effects of ethanol in the CPP paradigm. This outcome is consistent with a previous study showing greater CPP in WSP mice relative to WSR mice. In the CTA paradigm, sensitivity to ethanol withdrawal in the HAW/ LAW selected lines does not appear to be genetically correlated with sensitivity to the aversive properties of ethanol. However, the difference in acquisition of CTA in WSP/WSR lines suggest that some genes determining ethanol withdrawal severity may also influence initial sensitivity to ethanol's aversive effects.

Modulation of corticosterone does not affect the acquisition or expression of ethanol-induced conditioned place preference in DBA/2J mice.

Several recent studies have implicated the stress hormone corticosterone in modulating the rewarding properties of abused drugs, including amphetamine and ethanol. The present experiments examined a role for corticosterone in modulating the rewarding effects of ethanol in the place conditioning paradigm. Male DBA/2J mice were subjected to a Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which a distinctive floor stimulus (CS+) was paired four times with ethanol (2 g/kg). On intervening days, a different floor stimulus was paired with saline (CS-). In the first experiment, the steroid synthesis inhibitor, aminoglutethimide (AMG), administered prior to conditioning trials with ethanol, did not alter the acquisition of place preference. However, during conditioning trials, ethanol-stimulated locomotor activity in the AMG-treated group was significantly higher relative to the vehicle-treated group, suggesting that corticosterone may normally inhibit ethanol-stimulated activity. Plasma corticosterone levels in AMG-treated mice were significantly lower than in vehicle-treated mice, showing that AMG effectively suppressed corticosterone release on CS+ trials. The second experiment examined the effect of AMG on the expression of conditioned ethanol place preference. AMG administration prior to the preference test did not alter the magnitude of ethanol place preference. Corticosterone levels in the AMG-treated groups were significantly reduced relative to vehicle-treated groups, which showed a higher level of corticosterone during the preference test. These findings show that manipulation of corticosterone levels in a physiological range does not alter the acquisition or expression of ethanol-induced conditioned place preference in DBA/2J mice.

Mice lacking dopamine D4 receptors are supersensitive to ethanol, cocaine, and methamphetamine.

The human dopamine D4 receptor (D4R) has received considerable attention because of its high affinity for the atypical antipsychotic clozapine and the unusually polymorphic nature of its gene. To clarify the in vivo role of the D4R, we produced and analyzed mutant mice (D4R-/-) lacking this protein. Although less active in open field tests, D4R-/- mice outperformed wild-type mice on the rotarod and displayed locomotor supersensitivity to ethanol, cocaine, and methamphetamine. Biochemical analyses revealed that dopamine synthesis and its conversion to DOPAC were elevated in the dorsal striatum from D4R-/- mice. Based on these findings, we propose that the D4R modulates normal, coordinated and drug-stimulated motor behaviors as well as the activity of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons.

Rewarding effect of the neuroactive steroid 3 alpha-hydroxy-5 alpha-pregnan-20-one in mice.

The GABAA-receptor agonist neuroactive steroid 3 alpha-hydroxy-5 alpha-pregnan-20-one (3 alpha,5 alpha-P) has anxiolytic and locomotor stimulant effects and shares some subjective properties with benzodiazepines, barbiturates and ethanol, but there have been no studies of its reinforcing or rewarding effects. The present study examined the rewarding properties of 3 alpha,5 alpha-P using the conditioned place preference paradigm. Male DBA/2J mice received four pairings of a distinctive floor stimulus with 3 alpha,5 alpha-P (3.2, 10 or 17 mg/kg, IP) in an unbiased conditioning procedure. On alternate days a different distinctive floor was paired with vehicle. At the lowest dose (3.2 mg/kg), there was no difference between conditioning subgroups in preference for the drug-paired floor type, indicating an absence of place conditioning. However, a dose-dependent conditioned preference was evident at the higher doses as shown by the greater amount of time spent on the floor paired with 3 alpha,5 alpha-P. In addition, 3 alpha,5 alpha-P produced a dose-dependent increase in locomotor activity, which was significant following the 17 mg/kg dose. A control study showed no effect of the beta-cyclodextrin vehicle on place conditioning in the absence of neurosteroid. These results provide the first demonstration that 3 alpha,5 alpha-P, an endogenous modulator of GABAA receptor function, possesses rewarding properties using the conditioned place preference paradigm.