Public health system challenges in the Free State, South Africa: a situation appraisal to inform health system strengthening.

BACKGROUND: Since the advent of democracy, the South African government has been putting charters, policies, strategies and plans in place in an effort to strengthen public health system performance and enhance service delivery. However, public health programme performance and outcomes remained poor while the burden of disease increased. This was also the case in the Free State Province, where major public health system challenges occurred around 2012. Assessment was necessary in order to inform health system strengthening. METHODS: The study entailed a multi-method situation appraisal utilising information collated in 44 reports generated in 2013 through presentations by unit managers, subdistrict assessments by district clinical specialist teams, and group discussions with district managers, clinic supervisors, primary health care managers and chief executive and clinical officers of hospitals. These data were validated through community and provincial health indabas including non-governmental organisations, councils and academics, as well as unannounced facility visits involving discussions with a wide range of functionaries and patients. The reports were reviewed using the World Health Organization health system building blocks as a priori themes with subsequent identification of emerging subthemes. Data from the different methods employed were triangulated in a causal loop diagram showing the complex interactions between the components of an (in) effective health system. RESULTS: The major subthemes or challenges that emerged under each a priori theme included: firstly, under the 'service delivery' a priori theme, 'fragmentation of health services' (42 reports); secondly, under the 'health workforce' a priori theme, 'staff shortages' (39 reports); thirdly, under the 'health financing' a priori theme, 'financial/cash-flow problems' (39 reports); fourthly, under the 'leadership and governance' a priori theme, 'risk to patient care' (38 reports); fifthly, under the 'medical products/technologies' a priori theme, 'dysfunctional communication technology' (27 reports); and, sixthly, under the 'information' a priori theme, 'poor information management' (26 reports). CONCLUSION: The major overall public health system challenges reported by stakeholders involved fragmentation of services, staff shortages and financial/cash-flow problems. In order to effect health systems strengthening there was particularly a need to improve integration and address human and financial deficiencies in this setting.

Unsuccessful TB treatment outcomes with a focus on HIV co-infected cases: a cross-sectional retrospective record review in a high-burdened province of South Africa.

BACKGROUND: South Africa did not meet the MDG targets to reduce TB prevalence and mortality by 50% by 2015, and the TB cure rate remains below the WHO target of 85%. TB incidence in the country is largely fuelled by the HIV epidemic, and co-infected patients are more likely to have unsuccessful TB treatment outcomes. This paper analyses the demographic and clinical characteristics of new TB patients with unsuccessful treatment outcomes, as well as factors associated with unsuccessful treatment outcomes for HIV co-infected patients. METHODS: A cross-sectional retrospective record review of routinely collected data for new TB cases registered in the Free State provincial electronic TB database between 2009 and 2012. The outcome variable, unsuccessful treatment, was defined as cases ≥15 years that 'died', 'failed' or 'defaulted' as the recorded treatment outcome. The data were subjected to descriptive and logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2012 there were 66,940 new TB cases among persons ≥15 years (with a recorded TB treatment outcome), of these 61% were co-infected with HIV. Unsuccessful TB treatment outcomes were recorded for 24.5% of co-infected cases and 15.3% of HIV-negative cases. In 2009, co-infected cases were 2.35 times more at risk for an unsuccessful TB treatment outcome (OR: 2.35; CI: 2.06-2.69); this figure decreased to 1.8 times by 2012 (OR: 1.80; CI: 1.63-1.99). Among the co-infected cases, main risk factors for unsuccessful treatment outcomes were: ≥ 65 years (AOR: 1.71; CI: 1.25-2.35); receiving treatment in healthcare facilities in District D (AOR: 1.15; CI 1.05-1.28); and taking CPT (and not ART) (AOR: 1.28; CI: 1.05-1.57). Females (AOR: 0.93; CI: 0.88-0.99) and cases with a CD4 count >350 (AOR: 0.40; CI: 0.36-0.44) were less likely to have an unsuccessful treatment outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of TB-HIV/AIDS treatment integration is evident as co-infected patients on both ART and CPT, and those who have a higher CD4 count are less likely to have an unsuccessful TB treatment outcome. Furthermore, co-infected patients who require more programmatic attention are older people and males.

A multiple methods approach: radiation associated cataracts and occupational radiation safety practices in interventionalists in South Africa.

Ionising radiation is a modality used in diagnostic and therapeutic medicine. The technology has improved and resulted in lower dose exposure but there has been an escalation in the quantity of procedures, their duration and complexity. These factors have meant increased occupational radiation exposure for interventionalists. Ionising radiation exposure can have detrimental health effects and includes radiation skin burns, various carcinomas, genetic and chromosomal aberrations and cataractogenesis of the lenses of the eye. The lenses of the eye are of the most radiosensitive organs and the risk of cataracts is high despite low radiation dose exposures. The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is a method that can be used to mitigate the risk for developing lens opacifications. The consistent and effective utilisation of PPE is marred by availability, proper fit and ease of use when performing procedures. Radiation safety training is imperative to enforce a culture of radiation safety among interventionalists. The aim of this study was to quantify and describe cataracts among South African interventionalists and to understand their radiation safety practices. For this purpose, a cross sectional study was designed using multiple methods. A survey was conducted to determine the demographics and the risk factors of doctors exposed to radiation to doctors not exposed. The radiation workload and radiation safety practices of interventionalists were explored. Both groups had slit lamp examinations. The data were analysed analytically and a regression model developed looking at the outcomes and the risk factors. Qualitative in-depth interviews and group interviews were conducted to explore the perceptions of interventionalists regarding radiation safety. Deductive and inductive thematic analysis was done. Interdisciplinary research is challenging but offers tremendous opportunity for exploring and tackling complex issues related to securing a safe radiation work environment.

Factors influencing treatment default among tuberculosis patients in a high burden province of South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To determine and describe the factors influencing treatment default of tuberculosis (TB) patients in the Free State Province of South Africa. METHODS: A retrospective records review of pulmonary TB cases captured in the ETR.Net electronic TB register between 2003 and 2012 was performed. Subjects were >15 years of age and had a recorded pre-treatment smear result. The demographic and clinical characteristics of defaulters were described. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine factors associated with treatment default. The odds ratios (OR) together with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. Statistical significance was considered at 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 7980 out of 110 349 (7.2%) cases defaulted treatment. Significantly higher proportions of cases were male (8.3% vs. female: 5.8%; p<0.001), <25 years old (9.1% vs. 25-34 years: 8.7%; 35-44 years: 7.0%; 45-54 years: 5.2%; 55-64 years: 4.4%; >64 years: 3.9%; p<0.001), undergoing TB retreatment (11.0% vs. new cases: 6.3%; p<0.001), had a negative pre-treatment sputum smear result (7.8% vs. positive smear results: 7.1%; p<0.001), were in the first 2 months of treatment (95.5% vs. >2 months: 4.8%; p<0.001), and had unknown HIV status (7.8% vs. HIV-positive: 7.0% and HIV-negative: 5.7%; p<0.001). After controlling for potential confounders, multivariate analysis revealed a two-fold increased risk of defaulting treatment when being retreated compared to being treated for the first time for TB (adjusted OR (AOR) 2.0, 95% CI 1.85-2.25). Female cases were 40% less likely to default treatment compared to their male counterparts (AOR 0.6, 95% CI 0.51-0.71). Treatment default was less likely among cases >24 years old compared to younger cases (25-34 years: AOR 0.8, 95% CI 0.77-0.87; 35-44 years: AOR 0.6, 95% CI 0.50-0.64; 45-54 years: AOR 0.4, 95% CI 0.32-0.49; 55-64 years: AOR 0.3, 95% CI 0.21-0.43; >64 years: AOR 0.3, 95% CI 0.19-0.35). Co-infected cases receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) were 40% less likely to default TB treatment relative to those whose ART status was unknown (AOR 0.6, 95% CI 0.46-0.57). CONCLUSIONS: Salient factors influence TB patient treatment default in the Free State Province. Therefore, the strengthening of clinical and programmatic interventions for patients at high risk of treatment default is recommended. In particular, ART provision to co-infected cases facilitates TB treatment adherence and outcomes.

Sex-related trends in non-conversion of new smear-positive tuberculosis patients in the Free State, South Africa.

SETTING: Free State Province, South Africa. OBJECTIVE: To examine sex-specific trends in 2-month sputum smear non-conversion in new sputum smear-positive tuberculosis (TB) cases during a period when the DOTS strategy was operative. DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study of TB cases registered between 2003 and 2009 was conducted. Non-conversion was indicated by a positive 2-month sputum smear result. Descriptive and generalised linear model analyses were performed and sex-specific trends in 2-month sputum smear non-conversion rates estimated. RESULTS: Overall, 2-month sputum smear non-conversion rates were 12.5% in males and 9.3% in females. Non-conversion was significantly associated with age in males (P < 0.001). Non-conversion rates declined significantly between 2003 and 2009: from 15.9% to 10.8% in males (P < 0.001) and from 12.0% to 6.6% in females (P < 0.001). The average rate of decline of non-conversion was higher among females (1.0%, 95%CI 0.8-1.2) than among males (0.8%, 95%CI 0.5-1.0). By 2009, males had a 60% higher risk of non-conversion than females (RR 1.60, CI 1.37-1.86). CONCLUSION: The decline in the trend of 2-month sputum smear non-conversion confirms the relative success of the DOTS strategy in TB control, with better performance among females than males. Interventions should consider the sex and age of patients to improve the 2-month sputum smear-conversion rate.

Contexte : Province de l'Etat Libre, Afrique du Sud.Objectif : Examiner les tendances en fonction du sexe de la nonconversion des frottis de crachats après 2 mois chez des nouveaux cas de tuberculose (TB) à frottis positifs pendant une période où la stratégie DOTS opérait.Schéma : Réalisation d'une étude rétrospective de cohorte des cas de TB enregistrés entre 2003 et 2009. La non-conversion était définie par un résultat de frottis positif après 2 mois de traitement. Des analyses descriptives et de modèles linéaires généralisés ont été réalisées et les tendances de non conversion à 2 mois en fonction du sexe ont été estimées.Résultats : Le taux d'ensemble de non conversion était de 12,5% chez les hommes et de 9,3% chez les femmes. La non conversion était significativement associée à l'âge chez les hommes (P < 0,001). Le taux de non conversion a significativement diminué entre 2003 et 2009 de 15,9% à 10,8% chez les hommes (P < 0,001) et de 12% à 6,6% chez les femmes (P < 0,001). Le taux moyen de déclin de la non-conversion était plus élevé chez les femmes à 1% (IC95% 0,8­1,2%) que chez les hommes à 0,8% (IC95% 0,5­1%). En 2009, le risque de non conversion était plus élevé de 60% chez les hommes (RR 1,60; IC95% 1,37­1,86).Conclusion : Le déclin de la tendance à la non-conversion du frottis de crachats après 2 mois de traitement a mis en évidence le succès relatif de la stratégie DOTS dans la lutte contre la TB, avec un meilleur résultat chez les femmes que chez les hommes. Les interventions devraient tenir compte du sexe et de l'âge des patients afin d'améliorer le taux de conversion du frottis de crachats à 2 mois.

Marco de referencia: La Provincia del Estado Libre en África del Sur.Objetivo: Examinar las tendencias específicas de sexo, con respecto a la falta de conversión de la baciloscopia del esputo a los 2 meses de tratamiento, en los casos nuevos de tuberculosis (TB) con baciloscopia positiva, durante un período de aplicación de la estrategia DOTS.Métodos: Se llevó a cabo un estudio retrospectivo de cohortes de los casos de TB registrados entre el 2003 y el 2009. La falta de conversión se definió como la obtención de un resultado positivo de la baciloscopia del esputo a los 2 meses. Se practicaron análisis con modelos generales lineales y se calculó la tendencia de la falta de conversión a los 2 meses, según las tasas específicas de sexo.Résultados: En general, las tasas de falta de conversión fueron 12,5% en los hombres y 9,3% en las mujeres. La falta de conversión se asoció de manera significativa con la edad en los hombres (P < 0,001). El índice de falta de conversión disminuyó de manera considerable entre el 2003 y el 2009, de 15,9% a 10,8% en los hombres (P < 0,001) y de 12,0% a 6,6% en las mujeres (P < 0,001). La tasa promedio de disminución de la falta de conversión en las mujeres de 1,0 % (IC95% de 0,8% a 1,2%) fue más alta que la tasa de 0,8% en los hombres (IC95% de 0,5% a 1,0%). En el 2009, los hombres exhibieron un riesgo de falta de conversión superior en 60,0 % a las mujeres (RR 1,60; IC95% de 1,37 a 1,86).Conclusión: La tendencia a la disminución de la falta de conversión de la baciloscopia a los 2 meses de tratamiento define la eficacia relativa de la estrategia DOTS en el control de la TB y ofrece un mejor rendimiento en las mujeres que en los hombres. Con el propósito de mejorar las tasas de conversión, las intervenciones deben tener en cuenta el sexo y la edad de los pacientes.

Predictors of uptake of human immunodeficiency virus testing by tuberculosis patients in Free State Province, South Africa.

SETTING: Two districts of the Free State Province in South Africa. OBJECTIVE: To determine the predictors of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) test uptake by tuberculosis (TB) patients. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 600 TB patients in 61 primary health care facilities. Probability proportional-to-size sampling was used to determine the number of patients recruited at each facility. Structured exit interviews were conducted with convenience samples of patients at these facilities. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses were performed on the data. RESULTS: The average age of the recruited TB patients was 38.4 years. The majority were female (n = 310, 51.7%), unmarried (n = 439, 73.3%), unemployed (n = 513, 85.5%) and had undertaken HIV testing (n = 405, 67.5%). In multivariate analysis, having received information on the relationship between TB and HIV (OR 5.4, 95%CI 3.1-9.5) was the strongest predictor of HIV test uptake among unmarried patients. Other associated factors included knowing/having lost someone ill with HIV/AIDS (acquired immune-deficiency syndrome; OR 3.6, 95%CI 2.2-5.8), female sex (OR 2.3, 95%CI 1.4-3.7), unemployment (OR 2.2, 95%CI 1.2-4.1) and undergoing retreatment for TB (OR 2.0, 95%CI 1.2-3.2). CONCLUSION: HIV test scale-up efforts should aim to increase TB patients' awareness of the relationship between TB and HIV/AIDS and consider the impact of socio-demographic factors.