A conceptual framework for the economic analysis of factors influencing decision-making of small-scale farmers in animal health management.

The delivery of veterinary services in most of sub-Saharan Africa has undergone substantial changes, with the private sector gaining increasing recognition as an alternative to state provision. Given this policy shift, the authors argue that a better understanding of the behaviour and decision-making processes of small-scale farmers in animal health management is urgently required, to guide policy decisions regarding the delivery of animal health services. Whether the involvement of the private sector will improve overall efficiency in the delivery of veterinary services will depend greatly on the demand response of livestock producers who must make decisions about the health of livestock. The authors briefly review the decision-making process in small-scale farming systems, the economic nature of animal diseases and disease control and the models that have been used to guide resource allocation for disease control. To gain an improved understanding of the behaviour and decision-making processes of small-scale farmers, the authors propose a conceptual model including variables that relate to characteristics specific to small-scale farmers and farms, economic factors, institutional setting and biophysical factors. Two possible approaches are proposed for the economic analysis. Agricultural household modelling allows the derivation and testing of hypotheses regarding the demand elasticities for veterinary services, while qualitative choice models are better suited to the analysis of determinants behind the choices of farmers. The authors conclude that an urgent need exists for empirical research in this area.

Foot and mouth disease in Zambia: a review of the aetiology and epidemiology and recommendations for possible control.

In Zambia, foot and mouth disease (FMD) has been caused by all three of the South African Territories serotypes (SAT 1, 2 and 3) and by European types O and A. Three areas of the country which have experienced repeated occurrences of the disease are considered high-risk areas. The three areas are as follows: the southern border area between Zambia and Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia, the Kafue Flats and the northern border with Tanzania in the Nakonde and Mbala districts. The transfer mechanism of the virus is poorly understood but the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is considered to be the natural host, acting as a reservoir of infection for the SAT types of the virus. Cattle are known to be carriers of the virus for up to two and a half years and individual semi-domesticated buffalo have been reported to act as carriers for up to five years. In wild herds of buffalo, the virus has been recorded for periods of up to twenty-five years. Current control measures include mass vaccination of cattle in high-risk areas and restrictions on the movement of cattle from areas in which contact exists with buffalo. New protocols should be developed for the prevention and control of FMD, including the enforcement of livestock movement control, improved disease surveillance and reporting, and the monitoring of FMD virus in carrier cattle and buffalo. These measures will contribute towards building the confidence of the regulatory bodies of importing countries in the region.

Distribution of Rift Valley fever among cattle in Zambia.

In the present study, 1,421 cattle in 32 herds within nine districts, which are important cattle-producing centers in the nine provinces of Zambia, were tested for Rift Valley fever by the indirect immunofluorescence assay. One hundred and forty-seven cattle (10.5%) in 28 herds (88.9%) in the nine districts tested were positive for Rift Valley fever implying a country-wide distribution. In districts associated with flood plains and/or "dambos" (low lying areas of perpetual flooding), high herd and individual positive rates (100% and > 10%, respectively) were found, suggesting a significance of these features in the distribution of the disease.

Veterinary ethics in the liberalized market: the Zambian environment.

The Zambian veterinary delivery system is responding to changes in the socio-economic environment and in the structural organisation and functions of the delivery system itself. Privatisation and liberalization are now being actively pursued as official Government policy with free competition being encouraged. As a profession, veterinarians must safeguard their interests by, among other actions, self-regulating their activities so as to enhance their standing in society and to develop or maintain standards worthy of the profession. This will be achieved largely through the Veterinary Association of Zambia. It is also imperative for the Government to ensure that governmental policy succeeds by providing an appropriate environment and by protecting the public and animals from undesirable actions by agents of the delivery system (veterinarians and para-professionals). There is also the need to maintain harmony among these agents and to resolve any differences which develop between colleagues and subordinates. Such objectives call for laws and codes of ethics appropriate to the environment of Zambia to be established to guide practitioners, the Veterinary Association, the public and any statutory body which is established to enforce these laws and codes of conduct. The authors explore the meanings of ethics and laws, the principles which will guide stakeholders to develop such ethics and the roles of veterinary associations, statutory bodies, e.g. Veterinary Boards or Councils, veterinary schools and other stakeholders, such as para-professionals, including auxiliaries. The authors also examine the implications of certain rules, such as free competition in service delivery. The establishment of regulations and quality control methods are discussed briefly.