Quantitation of Plasma Membrane Drug Transporters in Kidney Tissue and Cell Lines Using a Novel Proteomic Approach Enabled a Prospective Prediction of Metformin Disposition.

The successful prospective incorporation of in vitro transporter kinetics in physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to describe drug disposition remains challenging. Although determination of scaling factors to extrapolate in vitro to in vivo transporter kinetics has been facilitated by quantitative proteomics, no robust assessment comparing membrane recoveries between different cells/tissues has been made. HEK293 cells overexpressing OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2K or human kidney cortex were homogenized and centrifuged to obtain the total membrane fractions, which were subsequently subjected to liquid-liquid extraction followed by centrifugation and precipitation to isolate plasma membrane fractions. Plasma membrane recoveries determined by quantitation of the marker Na+/K+-ATPase in lysate and plasma membrane fractions were ≤20% but within 3-fold across different cells and tissues. A separate study demonstrated that recoveries are comparable between basolateral and apical membranes of renal proximal tubules, as measured by Na+/K+-ATPase and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase 1, respectively. The plasma membrane expression of OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2K was quantified and relative expression factors (REFs) were determined as the ratio between the tissue and cell concentrations. Corrections using plasma membrane recovery had minimal impact on REF values (<2-fold). In vitro transporter kinetics of metformin were extrapolated to in vivo using the corresponding REFs in a PBPK model. The simulated metformin exposures were within 2-fold of clinical exposure. These results demonstrate that transporter REFs based on plasma membrane expression enable a prediction of transporter-mediated drug disposition. Such REFs may be estimated without the correction of plasma membrane recovery when the same procedure is applied between different matrices. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Transporter REFs based on plasma membrane expression enable in vitro-in vivo extrapolation of transporter kinetics. Plasma membrane recoveries as determined by the quantification of sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase were comparable between the in vitro and in vivo systems used in the present study, and therefore had minimal impact on the transporter REF values.

No Inhibition of MATE1/2K-Mediated Renal Creatinine Secretion Predicted With Ritonavir or Cobicistat.

Cobicistat has been reported to increase serum creatinine clinically without affecting glomerular filtration. This was ascribed to transient inhibition of MATE1-mediated renal creatinine secretion. Interestingly, a structurally similar drug, ritonavir, has not been associated with serum creatinine increases at the pharmacoenhancer dose. The present study was aimed to investigate the translation of in vitro MATE1/2K inhibition to clinical creatinine increase (cobicistat) and lack of it (ritonavir) considering their intracellular concentrations in renal proximal tubules. Uptake studies showed ritonavir and cobicistat are unlikely substrates for OCT2. The steady-state unbound concentration in the cytosol of human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells was comparable with the extracellular unbound concentration, suggesting that the entry of these compounds is predominantly mediated by passive diffusion. Ritonavir and cobicistat are MATE1 and MATE2K inhibitors with IC50 values of 3.1 and 90 µM (ritonavir), and 4.4 and 3.2 µM (cobicistat), respectively. However, the unbound cytosolic concentrations (Cu,cytosol) of ritonavir and cobicistat in human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells, 0.065 and 0.10 µM, respectively, after incubation with the clinical maximum total plasma concentrations at pharmacoenhancer doses does not support inhibition in vivo; Cu,cytosol >30 fold lower than IC50s. These results demonstrate that MATE1/2K inhibition is unlikely the mechanism of the clinical creatinine elevations with cobicistat.

Validation of a total IC50 method which enables in vitro assessment of transporter inhibition under semi-physiological conditions.

1. Accurate predictions of clinical transporter-mediated drug-drug interactions (DDI) from in vitro data can be challenging when compounds have poor solubility and/or high nonspecific binding. Additionally, current DDI predictions for compounds with high plasma-protein binding assume that the unbound fraction in plasma is 0.01, if the experimental value is less than 0.01 or cannot be determined. This approach may result in an overestimation of DDI risk. To overcome these challenges, it may be beneficial to conduct inhibition studies under physiologically relevant conditions. 2. Here, IC50 values, determined in the presence of 4% bovine serum albumin approximating human plasma albumin concentrations, were successfully used to predict DDI for uptake transporters, OATP1B1/1B3, OCT1/2, OAT1/3 and MATE1/2K. 3. The IC50 values of reference inhibitors with 4% bovine serum albumin, considered total IC50, were comparable to the predicted values based on nominal IC50 values determined under protein-free conditions and unbound fraction in plasma. Calculation of R-total and Cmax/IC50,total values using total plasma exposure and total IC50 values explained the clinical DDI or absence of it for these inhibitors. 4. These results suggest that IC50 determinations in the presence of 4% albumin can be used, in the context of clinical total exposure, to predict DDI involving uptake transporters.

In vitro OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 inhibition is associated with observations of benign clinical unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia.

1. Transient benign unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia has been observed clinically with several drugs including indinavir, cyclosporine, and rifamycin SV. Genome-wide association studies have shown significant association of OATP1B1 and UGT1A1 with elevations of unconjugated bilirubin, and OATP1B1 inhibition data correlated with clinical unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia for several compounds. 2. In this study, inhibition of OATP1B3 and UGT1A1, in addition to OATP1B1, was explored to determine whether one measure offers value over the other as a potential prospective tool to predict unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. OATP1B1 and OATP1B3-mediated transport of bilirubin was confirmed and inhibition was determined for atazanavir, rifampicin, indinavir, amprenavir, cyclosporine, rifamycin SV and saquinavir. To investigate the intrinsic inhibition by the drugs, both in vivo Fi (fraction of intrinsic inhibition) and R-value (estimated maximum in vivo inhibition) for OATP1B1, OATP1B3 and UGT1A1 were calculated. 3. The results indicated that in vivo Fi values >0.2 or R-values >1.5 for OATP1B1 or OATP1B3, but not UGT1A1, are associated with previously reported clinical cases of drug-induced unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. 4. In conclusion, inhibition of OATP1B1 and/or OATP1B3 along with predicted human pharmacokinetic data could be used pre-clinically to predict potential drug-induced benign unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in the clinic.

Prediction of clinical drug-drug interactions of veliparib (ABT-888) with human renal transporters (OAT1, OAT3, OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2K).

Veliparib (ABT-888) is largely eliminated as parent drug in human urine (70% of the dose). Renal unbound clearance exceeds glomerular filtration rate, suggesting the involvement of transporter-mediated active secretion. Clinically relevant pharmacokinetic interactions in the kidney have been associated with OAT1, OAT3, OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2K. In the present study, interactions of veliparib with these transporters were investigated. Veliparib inhibited OAT1, OAT3, OCT2, MATE1, and MATE2K with IC50 values of 1371, 505, 3913, 69.9, and 69.5 µM, respectively. The clinical unbound maximum plasma concentration of veliparib after single oral dose of 50 mg (0.45 µM) is manyfold lower than IC50 values for OAT1, OAT3, OCT2, MATE1, or MATE2K. These results indicate a low potential for drug-drug interaction (DDI) with OAT1/3, OCT2, or MATE1/2K. Additional studies demonstrated that veliparib is a substrate of OCT2. In Oct1/Oct2 double-knockout mice, the plasma exposure of veliparib was increased by 1.5-fold, and the renal clearance was decreased by 1.8-fold as compared with wild-type mice, demonstrating that organic cation transporters contribute to the renal elimination in vivo. In summary, the in vitro transporter data for veliparib predicts minimal potential for an OAT1/3-, OCT2-, and MATE1/2K-mediated DDI given the clinical exposure after single oral dose of 50 mg.

Quantitative measurements of corticosteroids in ex vivo samples using on-line SPE-LC/MS/MS.

Abnormal elevation of 11beta-HSD1 activities in tissues, such as fat and brain, may contribute to the development of the abdominal obesity and Alzheimer disease, and the inhibition of 11beta-HSD1 might be beneficial to the management of these diseases. To assess the effects of pharmacologic inhibitors of 11beta-HSD1, we developed a fast LC/MS/MS method to quantify corticosteroids in minced tissue samples in the presence of 11beta-HSD substrates. The novel on-line SPE-LC/MS/MS method was developed with dual binary gradient and a throughput of 4.5 min/sample. A total of six corticosteroids (cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone, dehydrocorticosterone, dexamethasone, and dehydrodexamethasone) were studied. The lower limit of quantitation from 0.40 to 11.4 fmol and 4.5 orders magnitude of dynamic range were obtained for these six compounds. Three novel enzymatic bi-products, all isomers of cortisol, were observed in the liver or fat samples. Two of them were identified by matching the HPLC retention times and MS/MS spectra with authentic compounds. The potential interferences of these isomers and their removal are discussed.

Simultaneous quantification of malonyl-CoA and several other short-chain acyl-CoAs in animal tissues by ion-pairing reversed-phase HPLC/MS.

Malonyl-CoA is a key intermediate involved in lipid synthesis and lipid oxidation. Here, we report on a novel method for the quantification of malonyl-CoA and seven other short-chain acyl-CoAs in various rat and mouse tissues using ion-pairing reversed-phase HPLC/MS. This method is capable of measuring malonyl-CoA, free coenzyme A (CoASH), acetyl-CoA, beta-hydroxyl-butyryl-CoA (HB-CoA), 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA), propionyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, and isobutyryl-CoA simultaneously with a dynamic linear range over two orders of magnitude in a 7.0 min HPLC gradient run. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 0.225 pmol for all acyl-CoAs studied, except for HMG-CoA which had a higher LLOQ of 0.90 pmol. The interference of HB-CoA on the quantification of malonyl-CoA in animal tissues was also explored for the first time.

Discovery and SAR development of thienopyridones: a class of small molecule AMPK activators.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is well established as a sensor and regulator of intracellular and whole-body energy metabolism. A high-throughput screen was performed in order to identify chemotypes that are bound by AMPK. A novel thienopyridone compound (1) was identified and subsequently optimized. The structure-activity relationships that emerged from this effort are described.

Discovery and metabolic stabilization of potent and selective 2-amino-N-(adamant-2-yl) acetamide 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitors.

Starting from a rapidly metabolized adamantane 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) inhibitor 22a, a series of E-5-hydroxy-2-adamantamine inhibitors, exemplified by 22d and (+/-)-22f, was discovered. Many of these compounds are potent inhibitors of 11beta-HSD1 and are selective over 11beta-HSD2 for multiple species (human, mouse, and rat), unlike other reported species-selective series. These compounds have good cellular potency and improved microsomal stability. Pharmacokinetic profiling in rodents indicated moderate to large volumes of distribution, short half-lives, and a pharmacokinetic species difference with the greatest exposure measured in rat with 22d. One hour postdose liver, adipose, and brain tissue 11beta-HSD1 inhibition was confirmed with (+/-)-22f in a murine ex vivo assay. Although 5,7-disubstitued-2-adamantamines provided greater stability, a single, E-5-position, polar functional group afforded inhibitors with the best combination of stability, potency, and selectivity. These results indicate that adamantane metabolic stabilization sufficient to obtain short-acting, potent, and selective 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors has been discovered.

Adamantane sulfone and sulfonamide 11-beta-HSD1 Inhibitors.

Potent and selective adamantane sulfone and sulfonamide inhibitors of 11-beta-HSD-1 have been discovered. Selected compounds from these series have robust pharmacokinetic profiles and strongly inhibit liver, fat, and brain HSD1 for extended periods after oral dosing.

Discovery of adamantane ethers as inhibitors of 11beta-HSD-1: Synthesis and biological evaluation.

A novel class of adamantane ethers 11beta-hydroxysteroid hydrogenase type I inhibitors has been discovered. These compounds have excellent HSD-1 potency and selectivity against HSD-2. The structure-activity relationships, selectivity, metabolism, PK, ex vivo pharmacodynamic data, and an X-ray crystal structure of one of these inhibitors bound to h-HSD-1 are discussed.

Adamantane 11-beta-HSD-1 inhibitors: Application of an isocyanide multicomponent reaction.

A series of potent and selective adamantane aminoamide 11-beta-HSD-1 inhibitors has been optimized. Chemically these studies were expedited by utilizing readily obtained amino acids as starting materials or an isocyanide multicomponent reaction. Structure-activity relationship studies resulted in the discovery of dual human and mouse 11-beta-HSD-1 potent and selective inhibitors like adamantane 11 and related compounds with high metabolic stability and robust pharmacokinetic profiles.

Synthesis and structural activity relationship of 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors with novel adamantane replacements.

A series of structurally novel and metabolically stable bridged bicyclic carbocycle and heterocycle adamantane replacements have been synthesized and biologically evaluated. Several of these compounds exhibit excellent human and mouse 11beta-HSD1 potency and 11beta-HSD2 selectivity.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of heterocycle containing adamantane 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors.

A series of metabolically stable adamantane amide 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors have been synthesized and biologically evaluated. These compounds exhibit excellent HSD1 potency and HSD2 selectivity and good pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

Discovery of orally active butyrolactam 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors.

A series of metabolically stable butyrolactam 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors have been synthesized and biologically evaluated. These compounds exhibit excellent HSD1 potency and HSD2 selectivity, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic profiles.

Identification and characterization of a small molecule AMPK activator that treats key components of type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key sensor and regulator of intracellular and whole-body energy metabolism. We have identified a thienopyridone family of AMPK activators. A-769662 directly stimulated partially purified rat liver AMPK (EC50 = 0.8 microM) and inhibited fatty acid synthesis in primary rat hepatocytes (IC50 = 3.2 microM). Short-term treatment of normal Sprague Dawley rats with A-769662 decreased liver malonyl CoA levels and the respiratory exchange ratio, VCO2/VO2, indicating an increased rate of whole-body fatty acid oxidation. Treatment of ob/ob mice with 30 mg/kg b.i.d. A-769662 decreased hepatic expression of PEPCK, G6Pase, and FAS, lowered plasma glucose by 40%, reduced body weight gain and significantly decreased both plasma and liver triglyceride levels. These results demonstrate that small molecule-mediated activation of AMPK in vivo is feasible and represents a promising approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome.

Microarrayed compound screening (microARCS) to identify activators and inhibitors of AMP-activated protein kinase.

A novel and innovative high-throughput screening assay was developed to identify both activators and inhibitors of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) using microarrayed compound screening (microARCS) technology. Test compounds were arrayed at a density of 8640 on a polystyrene sheet, and the enzyme and peptide substrate were introduced into the assay by incorporating them into an agarose gel followed by placement of the gels onto the compound sheet. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) was delivered via a membrane, and the phosphorylated biotinylated substrate was captured onto a streptavidin affinity membrane (SAM trade mark ). For detection, the SAM trade mark was removed, washed, and imaged on a phosphor screen overnight. A library of more than 700,000 compounds was screened using this format to identify novel activators and inhibitors of AMPK.

Pharmacology of endothelin receptor antagonists ABT-627, ABT-546, A-182086 and A-192621: in vitro studies.

Endothelins (ETs), 21-amino-acid peptides involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases, bind to ET(A) and ET(B) receptors to initiate their effects. Based on the same core structure, we have developed four small-molecule ET receptor antagonists, ABT-627, ABT-546, A-182086 and A-192621, which exhibit difference in selectivity for ET(A) and ET(B) receptors. In this report, we compare the potency and selectivity of these four antagonists in inhibiting (125)I-labelled ET-1 binding to cloned human ET(A) and ET(B) receptors, and in blocking ET-1-induced functional responses (arachidonic acid release and phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis).