ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: While obesity is a growing epidemic in most developed countries, we still lack information on countries in economic transition. In this study, we evaluate the built environment, activity levels, economic status and dietary patterns associated with body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to the 85th percentile among 3-year-old Ukrainian children living through the downturn in the economy during the mid-1990s. METHODS: We evaluated 883 3-year-old children from the Ukraine ELSPAC cohort. Principal components analysis was used as a data reduction tool for dietary, built environment and activity variables. We evaluated predictors of elevated BMI (> or = 85th percentile) using a multivariable logistic regression model. RESULTS: The final multivariable model showed that for every kilogram increase in the mother's weight, there was a corresponding 2% increase in risk of a child having a BMI> or = 85th percentile (OR=1.02; 95% CI: 1.00-1.04). A higher social class and a friendly neighborhood were associated with higher BMI, whereas infrequent outings to places that require spending money was associated with lower BMI. Except for meat consumption, none of the dietary variables were associated with elevated BMI. DISCUSSION: The picture in the Ukraine during the 1990s, a period of economic hardship, revealed that variables associated with higher standards of living were predictive of elevated BMI: higher social class, meat consumption and friendly neighborhoods. Variables associated with economic isolation were predictive of a lower risk of elevated BMI.
Subject(s)
Body Mass Index , Diet , Environment , Overweight/epidemiology , Child, Preschool , Cohort Studies , Female , Humans , Logistic Models , Male , Meat , Multivariate Analysis , Principal Component Analysis , Residence Characteristics , Risk Factors , Social Class , Socioeconomic Factors , Ukraine/epidemiologyABSTRACT
No comprehensive data on sources or risk factors of cadmium exposure in Ukrainian children are available. In this we measured the blood levels of cadmium among 80 Ukrainian children and evaluated sources of exposure. A nested case-control study from a prospective cohort of Ukrainian 3-year-old children was conducted. We evaluated predictors of elevated blood cadmium using a multivariable logistic regression model. The model included socioeconomic data, parent occupation, environmental tobacco smoke, hygiene, body-mass index, and diet. Dietary habits were evaluated using the 1992 Block-NCI-HHHQ Dietary Food Frequency survey. Elevated cadmium was defined as blood levels in the upper quartile (0.25 microg/L). The mean age for all 80 children was 36.6 months. Geometric mean cadmium level was 0.21 microg/L (range = 0.11-0.42 microg/L; SD = 0.05). Blood cadmium levels were higher among children taking zinc supplements (0.25 vs 0.21 microg/L; P = 0.032), children who ate sausage more than once per week (0.23 vs 0.20; P = 0.007) and children whose fathers worked in a by-product coking industry (0.25 vs 0.21; P = 0.056). In the multivariable model, predictors of elevated blood cadmium levels included zinc supplementation (adjusted OR = 14.16; P < 0.01), father working in a by-product coking industry (adjusted OR = 8.50; P = 0.03), and low body mass index (<14.5; adjusted OR = 5.67; P = 0.03). This is the first study to indicate a strong association between elevated blood cadmium levels and zinc supplementation in young children. Whole-blood cadmium levels observed in this group of Ukrainian children appear to be similar to those reported in other Eastern European countries.
