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OBJECTIVE: Despite the negative health impact of multiple risk-taking behaviors (RTBs), there is a lack of understanding of adolescents who are more prone to multiple RTBs. This study aimed to identify sociodemographic, mental, and physical health variables associated with increased susceptibility to multiple RTBs in each sex. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from the 2020 and 2021 Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey was used. A total of 106,979 Korean adolescents (55,460 men and 51,519 women) were assessed on five RTBs (alcohol use, smoking, sexual intercourse, illicit substance use, no seat belt wearing). In comparison to no RTB group, odds ratios of the relevant covariate factors were calculated in one RTB or multiple RTBs groups. RESULTS: Male and female adolescents engaging in multiple RTBs were 6.4% and 3.8%, respectively. Increasing age, low subjective socioeconomic status, and living in rural areas were associated with multiple RTBs regardless of sex. All mental health variables except anxiety were associated with multiple RTBs in both sexes. Physical inactivity and obesity were associated with decreased odds of multiple RTBs in both sexes. CONCLUSION: This study identifies diverse factors associated with multiple RTBs of Korean adolescents and demonstrates existing sex differences. Age and mental health status are the most critical factors that distinguish multiple risk-taking groups from those involved in one or no RTB.
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BACKGROUND: The vestibulocerebellar tract (VCT) is responsible for maintaining balance, spatial orientation, and coordination. Damage to the vestibular system is accompanied by symptoms of balance disorder or ataxia. This study aimed to compare cerebellar dysfunction according to VCT damage in patients with cerebellar stroke. METHODS: Six patients with cerebellum injury were recruited. This study measured ataxia and hand function related to visuomotor integration and manual dexterity using the Purdue pegboard test. The primary and bilateral secondary VCTs were reconstructed to investigate the integrity of pathways using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). RESULTS: The ataxia sign was positive in five patients (83%) at onset. In the result of the pegboard test, all patients had hand dysfunction in the dominant hand (100%). Likewise, all patients also had non-dominant hand dysfunction (100%). On the DTI tractography, the left and right primary VCTs of the patients demonstrated a 25% injury rate. Furthermore, the injury rates of ipsilateral and contralateral secondary VCTs were 50% and 58%. CONCLUSIONS: Ataxia is related to secondary VCTs, and hand dysfunction is also related to VCTs. Therefore, we believe that the current study will be helpful in evaluating and providing a clinical intervention strategy for patients with ataxia and hand dysfunction following cerebellar injury.
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The constituents of meat and meat by-product are susceptible to degradation processes, especially, the control of oxidative processes is critical. The main factors that influence their lipid oxidation are fat content and fatty acid composition. The aim of this study was to validate AOAC method 996.06 for analysis of fatty acid in meat by-products and to provide their accurate, precise, and reliable information in the Korean Food Composition Database. A total of 19 fatty acids were identified. The head, small intestine, stomach, and heart of pigs and the feet of chickens contained higher contents of total fatty acids, whereas the blood of cow had the lowest content. In particular, meat by-products other than the liver, blood, and stomach of cows and the stomach and small intestine of pigs contained higher contents of unsaturated fatty acids. Their main fatty acids were oleic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and stearic acid. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01223-8.
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In this study, Tenebrio molitor (mealworm) protein and reducing sugar were thermally reacted without (MP-RF) or with amino acids (MPA-RFs, A is then replaced with three-letter abbreviation of amino acid used in the reaction), and their Maillard reaction products (MRPs) and sensory characteristics were compared to explore the amino acids that contributed to desirable meat-related odor attributes in MP-RF. The odor characteristics perceived from MP-RF were changed based on the amino acid that was added to MP-RF and then reacted. Noticeably, a 'dried shrimp-like' attribute, which was the most intense in MP-RF, was weakened in all MPA-RFs. The 'meaty' and 'sulfur-like' odor notes were higher in MP-RF reacted with cysteine (MPCys-RF) than those in MP-RF and most MPA-RFs. In addition, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol and 2-furfurylthiol, which are the most important key odorants in a meat flavoring material, were also found only in MPCys-RF. These results show that the meaty flavoring potential of MP-RF was significantly enhanced when reacted with cysteine.
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OBJECTIVE: The vestibulocerebellar tract (VCT) is an important pathway of the central vestibular system, and plays a role in posture reflexes as well as perception of the head and body motion in spatial direction. We report on a patient with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), who showed injury of the VCT, which was demonstrated by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). CASE DESCRIPTION: This study recruited an 81-year-old male patient presented with quadriparesis due to ICH on both cerebellar hemispheres and 5 control subjects. A patient had the dizziness that was occurred when he moved and the motor weakness in lower limb. The primary and secondary VCTs of a patient with total 25 score of Scale of the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia were reconstructed using DTI. RESULTS: The results of DTI parameters of primary VCT showed that the tract volumes of primary VCT in both hemispheres of a patient showed significant decrease compared to those of control subjects. All of DTI parameters of ipsilateral secondary VCT in left hemisphere of a patient were within the reference range. Additionally, the ipsilateral secondary VCT in right hemisphere and the contralateral secondary VCTs in both hemispheres of a patient were not reconstructed. CONCLUSION: We suggest that a patient's ataxia appears to be related to injury of the VCT. Therefore, we believe that the current study would be helpful in evaluating and clinical managing patients with ataxia following cerebellar injury.
Subject(s)
Diffusion Tensor Imaging , White Matter , Aged, 80 and over , Ataxia/diagnostic imaging , Ataxia/etiology , Cerebellum/diagnostic imaging , Cerebral Hemorrhage/complications , Cerebral Hemorrhage/diagnostic imaging , Diffusion Tensor Imaging/methods , Humans , MaleABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Cerebellar injury can not only cause gait and postural instability, nystagmus, and vertigo but also affect the vestibular system. However, changes in connectivity regarding the vestibular projection pathway after cerebellar injury have not yet been reported. Therefore, in the current study, we investigated differences in the connectivity of the vestibular projection pathway after cerebellar injury using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography. METHODS: We recruited four stroke patients with cerebellar injury. Neural connectivity in the vestibular nucleus (VN) of the pons and medulla oblongata in patients with cerebellar injury was measured using DTI. Connectivity was defined as the incidence of connection between the VN on the pons and medulla oblongata and target brain regions such as the cerebellum, thalamus, parieto-insular vestibular cortex (PIVC), and parietal lobe. RESULTS: At thresholds of 10 and 30, there was lower connectivity in the ipsilateral hemisphere between the VN at the medullar level and thalamus in the patients than in healthy adults. At a threshold of 1 and 10, the patient group showed lower VN connectivity with the PIVC than healthy adults. At a threshold of 1, VN connectivity with the parietal lobe in the contralateral hemisphere was lower in the patients than in healthy adults. Additionally, at a threshold of 30, VN connectivity at the pons level with the cerebellum was lower in healthy adults than in the patients. CONCLUSION: Cerebellar injury seems to be associated with decreased vestibular projection pathway connectivity, especially in the ipsilateral thalamus, PIVC, and contralateral parietal lobe.
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging , Parietal Lobe , Adult , Brain , Brain Mapping , Cerebellum/diagnostic imaging , Diffusion Tensor Imaging/methods , HumansABSTRACT
Capsaicinoids, volatile compounds, and fatty acids were analyzed in red pepper seeds to determine any changes at different roasting temperatures. The contents of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin decreased as roasting temperatures increased. 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5,6-tetramethylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-(2-methylpropyl)pyrazine, 1-methylpyrrole, hexanedial, benzeneacetaldehyde, 2-acetylfuran, and butane-2,3-diol were newly detected in red pepper seeds roasted at 100 °C. Concentrations of pyrazines, pyrroles, oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds, carbonyls, and alcohols increased rapidly in red pepper seeds as the roasting temperature increased. Such compounds could contribute roasted, grilled, and sweet odor notes to roasted red pepper seeds. Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in all red pepper seeds. There were no significant differences in polyunsaturated fatty acids in red pepper seeds as roasting temperature increased. In conclusion, roasting red pepper seeds could be used in thermally processed foods because during roasting their pungency is reduced, desirable savory odors are enhanced, and the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids remain unchanged.
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Background and Purpose: Parieto-insular vestibular cortex (PIVC) injury can cause symptoms such as abnormal gait and affects the integration and processing of sensory inputs contributing to self-motion perception. Therefore, this study investigated the association of the vestibular pathway in the gait and motor function recovery process in patients with PIVC injury using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). Methods: We recruited 28 patients with stroke with only PIVC injury and reconstructed the PIVC using a 1.5-T scanner for DTI. Fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and tract volume were measured. The functional ambulatory category (FAC) test was conducted, and motricity index (MI) score was determined. These were conducted and determined at the start (phase 1), end of rehabilitation (phase 2), and during the follow-up 6 months after onset. Results: Although the tract volume of PIVC showed a decrease in subgroup A, all of DTI parameters were not different between two subgroups in affected side (p > 0.05). The results of MI and FAC were significantly different according to the recovery process (p < 0.05). In addition, FA of the PIVC showed a positive correlation with FAC in phase 2 of the recovery process on the affected side. On the unaffected side, FA of the PIVC showed a significant negative correlation with MI in all processes (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The degree of projection pathways to PIVC injury at onset time seems to be related to early restoration of gait function. Moreover, we believe that early detection of the projection pathway for PIVC injury using DTI would be helpful in the clinical evaluation and prediction of the prognosis of patients with PIVC injury.
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This study was to understand characteristic aroma properties of kale tea made by roasting kale leaves by profiling its aroma composition and screening its aroma-active compounds. Secondary metabolites of glucosinolates such as ally isothiocyanate, 3-butenyl isothiocyanate, 3-methylthiopropyl isothiocyanate, and 5-methylthiazole were the primary aroma compounds of raw kale but were less abundant in kale tea. Dimethyl trisulfide, cyclohex-2-en-1-ol, benzeneacetaldehyde, and 4-vinylguaiacol were quantitatively major aroma compounds in kale tea. Pyrazines, aldehydes, sulfides, and 4-vinylguaiacol were newly produced only in kale tea. In particular, 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine exhibiting the highest flavor dilution factor was the most potent aroma-active compound of kale tea, followed by methional, 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, two unknown compounds, dimethyl disulfide, furfural, benzaldehyde, and dimethyl trisulfide. These compounds contributed to roasted, sulfur-like/pungent, and sweet aroma characteristics, which were main aroma properties of kale tea. In addition, (E)-hex-2-enal and (Z)-hex-3-en-1-ol contributed to the green and grassy aromas of kale tea.
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OBJECTIVES: Despite the growing concern regarding the adverse effects related to problematic smartphone use (PSU), little is known about underlying morphologic changes in the brain. The brainstem is a deep brain structure that consists of several important nuclei associated with emotions, sensations, and motor functions. In this study, we sought to examine the difference in the volume of brainstem substructures among adolescents with and without PSU. METHODS: A total of 87 Korean adolescents participated in this study. The PSU group (n=20, age=16.2±1.1, female:male=12:8) was designated if participants reported a total Smartphone Addiction Proneness Scale (SAPS) score of ≥42, whereas the remaining participants were assigned to the control group (n=67, age=15.3±1.7, female:male=19:48). High-resolution T1 magnetic resonance imaging was performed, and the volume of each of the four brainstem substructures [midbrain, pons, medulla, and superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP)] was measured. Analysis of covariance was conducted to reveal group differences after adjusting for effects of age, gender, whole brain-stem volume, depressive symptoms, and impulsivity. RESULTS: The PSU group showed a significantly smaller volume of the SCP than the control group (F=8.273, p=0.005). The volume of the SCP and the SAPS score were negatively correlated (Pearson's r=-0.218, p=0.047). CONCLUSION: The present study is the first to reveal an altered volume of the brainstem substructure among adolescents with PSU. This finding suggests that the altered white matter structure in the brainstem could be one of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying behavioral changes in PSU.
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The vestibulocerebellar tract (VCT) is regarded as an important pathway of the central vestibular system. We identified the anatomical characteristics of the primary and secondary VCTs in a normal human brain using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography. Thirty-one healthy adults were recruited. A 1.5 T scanner was used for DTI tractography. A seed region of interest (ROI) was placed on the superior and medial vestibular nuclei at the pons level and a target ROI was placed on the uvula-nodulus of the cerebellum for reconstructing the primary VCT. In the secondary VCTs, the seed ROI was placed on the inferior and medial vestibular nuclei at the medulla oblongata level, and target ROIs were placed on the bilateral uvula-nodulus of the cerebellum. The primary VCT originated from the superior and medial vestibular nuclei at the pons level and terminated at the ipsilateral uvula-nodulus of the cerebellum. The component of the secondary VCTs originated from the inferior and medial vestibular nuclei at the level of the medulla oblongata and terminated at the bilateral uvula-nodulus of the cerebellum. Among them, 70.97% in the contralateral secondary VCT crossed at the vermis of the cerebellum. In addition, the fractional anisotropies (FAs) and mean diffusivity (MD) values of the primary VCT were significantly higher and lower, respectively, compared to those of the secondary VCTs (p < 0.05). The contralateral secondary VCT was significantly higher and lower in the MD and tract volume, respectively (p < 0.05), compared to the ipsilateral VCT. Therefore, we believe that the results will be useful for future studies of the vestibular projection pathway in the human brain injury aspect of central vestibular syndrome.
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RATIONALE: Lateral medullary syndrome is a central vestibular disorder characterized by vertigo and ataxia. We report on a patient with injury of the lateral vestibulospinal tract (VST) following lateral medullary syndrome, detected on diffusion tensor tractography (DTT). PATIENT CONCERNS: A 56-year-old male patient was diagnosed with lateral medullary syndrome due to an infarction in the posterior inferior cerebellar artery area. DIAGNOSES: Two weeks following the infarction, he was transferred to the rehabilitation department of the same university hospital with severe vertigo, ataxia (Berg balance scale: 16 point), and dysphasia. In contrast, he maintained good motor power and cognitive function (Mini-mental state test: 26 points). INTERVENTIONS: N/A OUTCOMES:: Both the patient's medial VSTs and left lateral VST were well-reconstructed. In contrast, the right lateral VST was not reconstructed. On DTT parameters of the VST, the patient's medial VSTs and left lateral VST did not differ significantly from the control subjects. LESSONS: An injury of the right lateral VST was demonstrated in a patient with lateral medullary syndrome. We believe that the result will be helpful in clinical management and research for patients with lateral medullary syndrome.
Subject(s)
Lateral Medullary Syndrome/complications , Lateral Medullary Syndrome/diagnostic imaging , Spinocerebellar Tracts/diagnostic imaging , Diffusion Tensor Imaging , Female , Humans , Magnetic Resonance Imaging , Male , Middle AgedABSTRACT
This study compared aroma compositions and sensory aroma attributes of raw and cooked Tenebrio molitor larvae (mealworms). Main sensory aroma attributes of raw mealworms were strong wet-soil-like, and less-intense oily, shrimp-like and sweet-corn-like. Quantitatively, the major aroma components of raw mealworms were hydrocarbons and aldehydes. As cooking proceeded, sweet-corn-like, roasted, and fried-oil-like sensory attributes were increasingly perceived with steaming, roasting, and frying, respectively. Some pyrazines, pyrrolidines, and carbonyls increased or appeared in roasted and fried mealworms. Partial least squares regression also showed differences in raw and cooked mealworms based on aroma components and their sensory attributes. Unlike raw mealworms, steamed mealworms had a relatively strong sweet-corn-like aroma attribute, which was related to 2,4,6-trimethyl-heptane, 2,4-dimethyl-dodecane, and 3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-2,3-dihydropyran-4-one. In comparison, roasted and fried mealworms exhibited roasted, shrimp-like, and fried-oil-like aroma attributes, which were associated with intermediates of the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation, such as pyrazines, alcohols, and aldehydes. This result during thermal reactions was very similar to those of meat and/or seafood. The use of mealworms as a savory-type flavor enhancer can be expected.
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As of April 18, 2020, there have been a total of 10,653 confirmed cases and 232 deaths due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Korea. The pathogen spread quickly, and the outbreak caused nationwide anxiety and shock. This study presented the anecdotal records that provided a detailed process of the multidisciplinary teamwork in mental health during the COVID-19 outbreak in the country. Psychosocial support is no less important than infection control during an epidemic, and collaboration and networking are at the core of disaster management. Thus, a multidisciplinary team of mental health professionals was immediately established and has collaborated effectively with its internal and external stakeholders for psychosocial support during the COVID-19 outbreak.
Subject(s)
Coronavirus Infections/psychology , Pneumonia, Viral/psychology , Psychosocial Support Systems , Betacoronavirus , COVID-19 , Health Personnel , Humans , Interprofessional Relations , Mental Health , Pandemics , Republic of Korea , SARS-CoV-2ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: The medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) interacts with eye movement control circuits involved in the adjustment of horizontal, vertical, and torsional eye movements. In this study, we attempted to identify and investigate the anatomical characteristics of the MLF in human brain, using probabilistic diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography. METHODS: We recruited 31 normal healthy adults and used a 1.5-T scanner for DTI. To reconstruct MLFs, a seed region of interest (ROI) was placed on the interstitial nucleus of Cajal at the midbrain level. A target ROI was located on the MLF of the medulla in the reticular formation of the medulla. Mean values of fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, and tract volumes of MLFs were measured. RESULTS: The component of the MLF originated from the midbrain MLF, descended through the posterior side of the medial lemniscus (ML) and terminated on the MLF of medulla on the posterior side of the ML in the medulla midline. DTI parameters of right and left MLFs were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: The tract of the MLF in healthy brain was identified by probabilistic DTI tractography. We believe this study will provide basic data and aid future comparative research on lesion or age-induced MLF changes.
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OBJECTIVE: Subjective visual vertical (SVV) deviation can indicate impairments of motion perception and spatial orientation in individuals with vestibular disorders. This study investigated the influence of SVV on tandem gait ability by assessing differences between temporal, spatial, and kinematic characteristics in young adults. METHODS: We recruited sixteen young adults with increased SVV and 17 age-matched control subjects. All subjects recruited for this study were with no history of neurological or musculoskeletal diseases. Knee and hip-joint kinematic data, spatio-temporal parameters, and gait variability were measured during tandem gait. RESULTS: Stride time variability and stride velocity variability were significantly greater in the experimental group than the control group (pâ<â0.05). In addition, a significant correlation was observed between stride time variability and SVV results (râ=â0.345, pâ<â0.05). However, hip and knee joint angles were non-significantly different in the experimental and control groups (pâ>â0.05) and spatio-temporal parameters were similar between the two groups (pâ>â0.05). CONCLUSION: Stride time variability and stride velocity variability during tandem gait were significantly different in the experimental and control groups. We presume that increased SVV deviation is related to greater gait variability during tandem gait.
Subject(s)
Gait/physiology , Motion Perception/physiology , Space Perception/physiology , Vestibular Function Tests/methods , Female , Humans , Male , Vestibular Diseases/diagnosis , Vestibular Diseases/physiopathology , Walking/physiology , Young AdultABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: We investigated the changes of the vestibulospinal tract (VST) and parietoinsular vestibular cortex (PIVC) using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and relation to balance between old and young healthy adults. METHODS: This study recruited eleven old adults (6 males, 5 females; mean age 63.36 ± 4.25 years) and 12 young adults (7 males, 5 females; mean age 28.42 ± 4.40 years). The lateral and medial VST and PIVC were reconstructed using DTI. Fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and tract volume were measured. The six-minute walk test (6-MWT), the timed up and go test (TUG), and the Berg balance scale (BBS) were conducted. Spatiotemporal parameters during tandem gait and values of sway during one-leg standing using the wearable sensors were measured. All parameters between two groups were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test and independent t-test. RESULTS: Statistically significant decrease in old adults was detected in the tract volume of lateral (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (p = 0.005) and medial VST (. CONCLUSION: The results suggested that there was a relationship between DTI parameters in the vestibular neural pathway and balance according to aging.
Subject(s)
Age Factors , Postural Balance/physiology , Spine/pathology , Adult , Aged , Anisotropy , Brain/pathology , Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging/methods , Diffusion Tensor Imaging/methods , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Spine/innervation , Time and Motion Studies , White Matter/pathology , Young AdultABSTRACT
This study investigated the differences and changes in the volatile profiles of buckwheat soksungjang (BS) inoculated with multiple microbial starters (Lactobacillus brevis + Aspergillus oryzae, BS-LA vs. Lactobacillus brevis + Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, BS-LB) during fermentation using SPME coupled with GC-MS and partial least square-discriminant analysis. BS samples fermented for 5 weeks could be differentiated from other BS samples with shorter fermentation periods, and the BS-LA and BS-LB samples fermented for 5 weeks were separated. Acids, benzenes, and esters were main volatile compounds in both BS samples, however, their differences and changes were varied. The increase of 3-methylbutanoic acid was bigger in BS-LB than BS-LA, while the contents of 2- and 3-methylbutanal were relatively higher in BS-LA than BS-LB. Furthermore, the contents of esters of BS-LA significantly increased during fermentation. These results indicate that the volatile profiles of BS samples depend on the fermentation periods and the combination of microbial starters.
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BACKGROUND: Walking in daily life is often accompanied by an attention-demanding task, which requires a different attentional load and external environments. Therefore, various gaits require complex and systematic interactions between several nervous systems, such as sensory association, cognitive functions, and the musculoskeletal system. OBJECTIVE: Dual-task conditions during gait can affect the interaction between cognitive processing and motor behavior. This study investigated the effect of two types of cognitive dual tasks and one type of manual dual task (MDT) on kinematic and spatiotemporal parameters of gait in young healthy adults. METHODS: We recruited 30 healthy young adults in this study. All participants performed normal gait, and two types of cognitive tasks (subtraction dual task, SDT; and working memory dual task, WMDT) and MDT (carrying a cup filled with water) during gait. This study assessed kinematic data during the stance and swing phases and spatiotemporal parameters. RESULTS: MDT gait showed a significant decrement of hip-joint movement during the stance phase compared to the normal gait (pâ<â0.05). Stride velocity significantly decreased during SDT and WMDT gait compared with the normal gait (pâ<â0.05). MDT gait showed significant decrement of all spatiotemporal parameters of gait compared with normal gait (pâ<â0.05). CONCLUSION: We reported that MDT gait can induce decreased hip-joint motion during the stance phase and reduced all spatiotemporal parameters to maintain balance and reduce the risk of falling. Therefore, motor dual tasks while walking would be useful as an intervention strategy to rehabilitate or train people at risk for falling.
Subject(s)
Attention/physiology , Gait/physiology , Adult , Analysis of Variance , Female , Gait Analysis , Healthy Volunteers , Humans , Male , Range of Motion, Articular/physiology , Task Performance and Analysis , Walking/physiologyABSTRACT
Few studies have investigated the effect of age on treatment effectiveness of evidence-based social skills training in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) adolescents. This study evaluated the effectiveness of Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS®) in different ages of ASD adolescents. A total of 110 ASD adolescents aged 11-19 years were divided into early, middle, and late adolescence groups, and the changes in outcome measures following intervention were compared among the three groups. We found that the improvements in social competence after PEERS® were significant, but the treatment effects were not significantly different among the three age groups. The findings suggest that PEERS® is beneficial for ASD adolescents regardless of patient age and adolescence stage.