Early Optic Nerve Head Glial Proliferation and Jak-Stat Pathway Activation in Chronic Experimental Glaucoma.

Purpose: We previously reported increased expression of cell proliferation and Jak-Stat pathway-related genes in chronic experimental glaucoma model optic nerve heads (ONH) with early, mild injury. Here, we confirm these observations by localizing, identifying, and quantifying ONH cellular proliferation and Jak-Stat pathway activation in this model. Methods: Chronic intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation was achieved via outflow pathway sclerosis. After 5 weeks, ONH longitudinal sections were immunolabeled with proliferation and cell-type markers to determine nuclear densities in the anterior (unmyelinated) and transition (partially myelinated) ONH. Nuclear pStat3 labeling was used to detect Jak-Stat pathway activation. Nuclear density differences between control ONH (uninjected) and ONH with either early or advanced injury (determined by optic nerve injury grading) were identified by ANOVA. Results: Advanced injury ONH had twice the nuclear density (P < 0.0001) of controls and significantly greater astrocyte density in anterior (P = 0.0001) and transition (P = 0.006) ONH regions. An increased optic nerve injury grade positively correlated with increased microglia/macrophage density in anterior and transition ONH (P < 0.0001, both). Oligodendroglial density was unaffected. In glaucoma model ONH, 80% of anterior and 66% of transition region proliferating cells were astrocytes. Nuclear pStat3 labeling significantly increased in early injury anterior ONH, and 95% colocalized with astrocytes. Conclusions: Astrocytes account for the majority of proliferating cells, contributing to a doubled nuclear density in advanced injury ONH. Jak-Stat pathway activation is apparent in the early injury glaucoma model ONH. These data confirm dramatic astrocyte cell proliferation and early Jak-Stat pathway activation in ONH injured by elevated IOP.

Optic Nerve Head Astrocytes Display Axon-Dependent and -Independent Reactivity in Response to Acutely Elevated Intraocular Pressure.

Purpose: Optic nerve head (ONH) astrocytes provide support for axons, but exhibit structural and functional changes (termed reactivity) in a number of glaucoma models. The purpose of this study was to determine if ONH astrocyte structural reactivity is axon-dependent. Methods: Using rats, we combine retrobulbar optic nerve transection (ONT) with acute controlled elevation of intraocular pressure (CEI), to induce total optic nerve axon loss and ONH astrocyte reactivity, respectively. Animals were euthanized immediately or 1 day post CEI, in the presence or absence of ONT. ONH sections were labeled with fluorescent-tagged phalloidin and antibodies against ß3 tubulin, phosphorylated cortactin, phosphorylated paxillin, or complement C3. ONH label intensities were quantified after confocal microscopy. Retrobulbar nerves were assessed for axon injury by light microscopy. Results: While ONT alone had no effect on ONH astrocyte structural orientation, astrocytes demonstrated significant reorganization of cellular extensions within hours after CEI, even when combined with ONT. However, ONH astrocytes displayed differential intensities of actin (phosphorylated cortactin) and focal adhesion (phosphorylated paxillin) mediators in response to CEI alone, ONT alone, or the combination of CEI and ONT. Lastly, label intensities of complement C3 within the ONH were unchanged in eyes subjected to CEI alone, ONT alone, or the combination of CEI and ONT, relative to controls. Conclusions: Early ONH astrocyte structural reactivity to elevated IOP is multifaceted, displaying both axon dependent and independent responses. These findings have important implications for pursuing astrocytes as diagnostic and therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders with fluctuating levels of axon injury.

Comparison of MicroRNA Expression in Aqueous Humor of Normal and Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma Patients Using PCR Arrays: A Pilot Study.

Purpose: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, endogenous noncoding RNAs that have been detected in human aqueous humor (AH). Prior studies have pooled samples to obtain sufficient quantities for analysis or used next-generation sequencing. Here, we used PCR arrays with preamplification to identify and compare miRNAs from individual AH samples between patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) and normal controls. Methods: AH was collected before cataract surgery from six stable, medically treated POAG patients and eight age-matched controls. Following reverse transcription and preamplification, individual patient samples were profiled on Taqman Low Density MicroRNA Array Cards. Differentially expressed miRNAs were stratified for fold changes larger than ±2 and for significance of P < 0.05. Significant Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways influenced by the differentially expressed miRNAs were identified using the predicted target module of the miRWalk 2.0 database. Results: This approach detected 181 discrete miRNAs, which were consistently expressed across all samples of both experimental groups. Significant up-regulation of miR-518d and miR-143, and significant down-regulation of miR-660, was observed in the AH of POAG patients compared with controls. These miRNAs were predicted to reduce cell proliferation and extracellular matrix remodeling, endocytosis, Wnt signaling, ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and adherens junction function. Conclusions: This pilot study demonstrates that miRNA expression within the AH of POAG patients differs from age-matched controls. AH miRNAs exhibit potential as biomarkers of POAG, which merits further investigation in a larger case-controlled study. This technique provides a cost-effective and sensitive approach to assay miRNAs in individual patient samples without the need for pooling.

A Period of Controlled Elevation of IOP (CEI) Produces the Specific Gene Expression Responses and Focal Injury Pattern of Experimental Rat Glaucoma.

Purpose: We determine if several hours of controlled elevation of IOP (CEI) will produce the optic nerve head (ONH) gene expression changes and optic nerve (ON) damage pattern associated with early experimental glaucoma in rats. Methods: The anterior chambers of anesthetized rats were cannulated and connected to a reservoir to elevate IOP. Physiologic parameters were monitored. Following CEI at various recovery times, ON cross-sections were graded for axonal injury. Anterior ONHs were collected at 0 hours to 10 days following CEI and RNA extracted for quantitative PCR measurement of selected messages. The functional impact of CEI was assessed by electroretinography (ERG). Results: During CEI, mean arterial pressure (99 ± 6 mm Hg) and other physiologic parameters remained stable. An 8-hour CEI at 60 mm Hg produced significant focal axonal degeneration 10 days after exposure, with superior lesions in 83% of ON. Message analysis in CEI ONH demonstrated expression responses previously identified in minimally injured ONH following chronic IOP elevation, as well as their sequential patterns. Anesthesia with cannulation at 20 mm Hg did not alter these message levels. Electroretinographic A- and B-waves, following a significant reduction at 2 days after CEI, were fully recovered at 2 weeks, while peak scotopic threshold response (pSTR) remained mildly but significantly depressed. Conclusions: A single CEI reproduces ONH message changes and patterns of ON injury previously observed with chronic IOP elevation. Controlled elevation of IOP can allow detailed determination of ONH cellular and functional responses to an injurious IOP insult and provide a platform for developing future therapeutic interventions.

Astrocyte Structural and Molecular Response to Elevated Intraocular Pressure Occurs Rapidly and Precedes Axonal Tubulin Rearrangement within the Optic Nerve Head in a Rat Model.

Glaucomatous axon injury occurs at the level of the optic nerve head (ONH) in response to uncontrolled intraocular pressure (IOP). The temporal response of ONH astrocytes (glial cells responsible for axonal support) to elevated IOP remains unknown. Here, we evaluate the response of actin-based astrocyte extensions and integrin-based signaling within the ONH to 8 hours of IOP elevation in a rat model. IOP elevation of 60 mm Hg was achieved under isoflurane anesthesia using anterior chamber cannulation connected to a saline reservoir. ONH astrocytic extension orientation was significantly and regionally rearranged immediately after IOP elevation (inferior ONH, 43.2° ± 13.3° with respect to the anterior-posterior axis versus 84.1° ± 1.3° in controls, p<0.05), and re-orientated back to baseline orientation 1 day post IOP normalization. ONH axonal microtubule filament label intensity was significantly reduced 1 and 3 days post IOP normalization, and returned to control levels on day 5. Phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase (FAK) levels steadily decreased after IOP normalization, while levels of phosphorylated paxillin (a downstream target of FAK involved in focal adhesion dynamics) were significantly elevated 5 days post IOP normalization. The levels of phosphorylated cortactin (a downstream target of Src kinase involved in actin polymerization) were significantly elevated 1 and 3 days post IOP normalization and returned to control levels by day 5. No significant axon degeneration was noted by morphologic assessment up to 5 days post IOP normalization. Actin-based astrocyte structure and signaling within the ONH are significantly altered within hours after IOP elevation and prior to axonal cytoskeletal rearrangement, producing some responses that recover rapidly and others that persist for days despite IOP normalization.

Radiation pretreatment does not protect the rat optic nerve from elevated intraocular pressure-induced injury.

PURPOSE: Optic nerve injury has been found to be dramatically reduced in a genetic mouse glaucoma model following exposure to sublethal, head-only irradiation. In this study, the same radiation treatment was used prior to experimental induction of elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) to determine if radiation is neuroprotective in another glaucoma model. METHODS: Episcleral vein injection of hypertonic saline was used to elevate IOP unilaterally in two groups of rats: (1) otherwise untreated and (2) radiation pretreated, n > 25/group. Intraocular pressure histories were collected for 5 weeks, when optic nerves were prepared and graded for injury. Statistical analyses were used to compare IOP history and nerve injury. The density of microglia and macrophages in two nerve head regions was determined by Iba1 immunolabeling. RESULTS: Mean and peak IOP elevations were not different between the two glaucoma model groups. Mean optic nerve injury grades were not different in glaucoma model optic nerves and were equivalent to approximately 35% of axons degenerating. Nerves selected for lower mean or peak IOP elevations did not differ in optic nerve injury. Similarly, nerves selected for lower injury grade did not differ in IOP exposure. By multiple regression modeling, nerve injury grade was most significantly associated with mean IOP (P < 0.002). There was no significant effect of radiation treatment. Iba1+ cell density was not altered by radiation treatment. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to previous observations in a mouse genetic glaucoma model, head-only irradiation offers the adult rat optic nerve no protection from optic nerve degeneration due to chronic, experimentally induced IOP elevation.

Comparison of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in vivo and axonal transport after chronic intraocular pressure elevation in young versus older rats.

PURPOSE: To compare in young and old rats longitudinal measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT) and axonal transport 3-weeks after chronic IOP elevation. METHOD: IOP was elevated unilaterally in 2- and 9.5-month-old Brown-Norway rats by intracameral injections of magnetic microbeads. RNFLT was measured by spectral domain optical coherence tomography. Anterograde axonal transport was assessed from confocal scanning laser ophthalmolscopy of superior colliculi (SC) after bilateral intravitreal injections of cholera toxin-B-488. Optic nerve sections were graded for damage. RESULTS: Mean IOP was elevated in both groups (young 37, old 38 mmHg, p = 0.95). RNFL in young rats exhibited 10% thickening at 1-week (50.9±8.1 µm, p<0.05) vs. baseline (46.4±2.4 µm), then 7% thinning at 2-weeks (43.0±7.2 µm, p>0.05) and 3-weeks (43.5±4.4 µm, p>0.05), representing 20% loss of dynamic range. RNFLT in old rats showed no significant change at 1-week (44.9±4.1 µm) vs. baseline (49.2±5.3 µm), but progression to 22% thinning at 2-weeks (38.0±3.7 µm, p<0.01) and 3-weeks (40.0±6.6 µm, p<0.05), representing 59% loss of dynamic range. Relative SC fluorescence intensity was reduced in both groups (p<0.001), representing 77-80% loss of dynamic range and a severe transport deficit. Optic nerves showed 75-95% damage (p<0.001). There was greater RNFL thinning in old rats (p<0.05), despite equivalent IOP insult, transport deficit and nerve damage between age groups (all p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Chronic IOP elevation resulted in severely disrupted axonal transport and optic nerve axon damage in all rats, associated with mild RNFL loss in young rats but a moderate RNFL loss in old rats despite the similar IOP insult. Hence, the glaucomatous injury response within the RNFL depends on age.

Comparison of longitudinal in vivo measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and retinal ganglion cell density after optic nerve transection in rat.

PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between longitudinal in vivo measurements of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT) and retinal ganglion cell (RGC) density after unilateral optic nerve transection (ONT). METHODS: Nineteen adult Brown-Norway rats were studied; N = 10 ONT plus RGC label, N = 3 ONT plus vehicle only (sans label), N = 6 sham ONT plus RGC label. RNFLT was measured by spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) at baseline then weekly for 1 month. RGCs were labeled by retrograde transport of fluorescently conjugated cholera toxin B (CTB) from the superior colliculus 48 hours prior to ONT or sham surgery. RGC density measurements were obtained by confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (CSLO) at baseline and weekly for 1 month. RGC density and reactivity of microglia (anti-Iba1) and astrocytes (anti-GFAP) were determined from post mortem fluorescence microscopy of whole-mount retinae. RESULTS: RNFLT decreased after ONT by 17% (p<0.05), 30% (p<0.0001) and 36% (p<0.0001) at weeks 2, 3 and 4. RGC density decreased after ONT by 18%, 69%, 85% and 92% at weeks 1, 2, 3 and 4 (p<0.0001 each). RGC density measured in vivo at week 4 and post mortem by microscopy were strongly correlated (R = 0.91, p<0.0001). In vivo measures of RNFLT and RGC density were strongly correlated (R = 0.81, p<0.0001). In ONT-CTB labeled fellow eyes, RNFLT increased by 18%, 52% and 36% at weeks 2, 3 and 4 (p<0.0001), but did not change in fellow ONT-eyes sans CTB. Microgliosis was evident in the RNFL of the ONT-CTB fellow eyes, exceeding that observed in other fellow eyes. CONCLUSIONS: In vivo measurements of RNFLT and RGC density are strongly correlated and can be used to monitor longitudinal changes after optic nerve injury. The strong fellow eye effect observed in eyes contralateral to ONT, only in the presence of CTB label, consisted of a dramatic increase in RNFLT associated with retinal microgliosis.

Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and axonal transport 1 and 2 weeks after 8 hours of acute intraocular pressure elevation in rats.

PURPOSE: To compare in vivo retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT) and axonal transport at 1 and 2 weeks after an 8-hour acute IOP elevation in rats. METHODS: Forty-seven adult male Brown Norway rats were used. Procedures were performed under anesthesia. The IOP was manometrically elevated to 50 mm Hg or held at 15 mm Hg (sham) for 8 hours unilaterally. The RNFLT was measured by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Anterograde and retrograde axonal transport was assessed from confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy imaging 24 hours after bilateral injections of 2 µL 1% cholera toxin B-subunit conjugated to AlexaFluor 488 into the vitreous or superior colliculi, respectively. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and microglial densities were determined using antibodies against Brn3a and Iba-1. RESULTS: The RNFLT in experimental eyes increased from baseline by 11% at 1 day (P < 0.001), peaked at 19% at 1 week (P < 0.0001), remained 11% thicker at 2 weeks (P < 0.001), recovered at 3 weeks (P > 0.05), and showed no sign of thinning at 6 weeks (P > 0.05). There was no disruption of anterograde transport at 1 week (superior colliculi fluorescence intensity, 75.3 ± 7.9 arbitrary units [AU] for the experimental eyes and 77.1 ± 6.7 AU for the control eyes) (P = 0.438) or 2 weeks (P = 0.188). There was no obstruction of retrograde transport at 1 week (RCG density, 1651 ± 153 per mm(2) for the experimental eyes and 1615 ± 135 per mm(2) for the control eyes) (P = 0.63) or 2 weeks (P = 0.25). There was no loss of Brn3a-positive RGC density at 6 weeks (P = 0.74) and no increase in microglial density (P = 0.92). CONCLUSIONS: Acute IOP elevation to 50 mm Hg for 8 hours does not cause a persisting axonal transport deficit at 1 or 2 weeks or a detectable RNFLT or RGC loss by 6 weeks but does lead to transient RNFL thickening that resolves by 3 weeks.

Imaging axonal transport in the rat visual pathway.

A technique was developed for assaying axonal transport in retinal ganglion cells using 2 µl injections of 1% cholera toxin b-subunit conjugated to AlexaFluor488 (CTB). In vivo retinal and post-mortem brain imaging by confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and post-mortem microscopy were performed. The transport of CTB was sensitive to colchicine, which disrupts axonal microtubules. The bulk rates of transport were determined to be approximately 80-90 mm/day (anterograde) and 160 mm/day (retrograde). Results demonstrate that axonal transport of CTB can be monitored in vivo in the rodent anterior visual pathway, is dependent on intact microtubules, and occurs by active transport mechanisms.

Deformation of the rodent optic nerve head and peripapillary structures during acute intraocular pressure elevation.

PURPOSE. To evaluate the effect of acutely elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) on retinal thickness and optic nerve head (ONH) structure in the rat eye by spectral domain-optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). METHODS. Fourteen adult male Brown-Norway rats were studied under anesthesia (ketamine/xylazine/acepromazine, 55:5:1 mg/kg intramuscularly). Both eyes were imaged by SD-OCT on two baseline occasions several weeks before and again 2 and 4 weeks after the acute IOP imaging session. During the acute IOP session, SD-OCT imaging was performed 10 minutes after IOP was manometrically set at 15 mm Hg and then at 10, 30, and 60 minutes after IOP had been elevated to 50 mm Hg (n = 8) and again 10 and 30 minutes after IOP had been lowered back to 15 mm Hg (recovery). In two additional groups, IOP elevation was set to 70 mm Hg (n = 4) or 40 mm Hg (n = 2). Acute IOP results are reported for a pattern of 49 horizontal B-scans spanning a 20° square and follow-up results for peripapillary circular B-scans. Retinal and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thicknesses were measured with custom software by manual image segmentation. Friedman and Dunn's tests were used to assess acute and longer-term effects of acute IOP elevation. RESULTS. Acute IOP elevation to 50 mm Hg caused rapid (within seconds) deformation of the ONH and peripapillary structures, including posterior displacement of the ONH surface and outward bowing of peripapillary tissue; retinal thickness decreased progressively from 10 to 30 to 60 minutes by 16%, 18%, and 20% within the area of Bruch's membrane opening (BMO; P < 0.0001) by 8%, 9%, and 11% within the central 10° (excluding the BMO; P < 0.0001) but only by 1%, 2%, and 2.4% beyond the central 10° (P < 0.0001). Recovery was progressive and nearly complete by 30 minutes. Acute IOP elevation to 40 and 70 mm Hg produced similar structural changes, but 70 mm Hg also interfered with retinal blood flow. There were no changes in peripapillary retinal or RNFL thickness (P = 0.08 and P = 0.16, respectively) measured 2 and 4 weeks after acute elevation to 50 mm Hg. CONCLUSIONS. Acute IOP elevation in the rodent eye causes rapid, reversible posterior deformation of the ONH and thinning of the peripapillary retina, with only minimal retinal thinning beyond 5° of the ONH. No permanent changes in peripapillary retinal or RNFL thickness (for up to 1 month of follow-up) were caused by 60 minutes of IOP elevation to 50 mm Hg.