Validating a novel deterministic privacy-preserving record linkage between administrative & clinical data: applications in stroke research.

Introduction: Research data combined with administrative data provides a robust resource capable of answering unique research questions. However, in cases where personal health data are encrypted, due to ethics requirements or institutional restrictions, traditional methods of deterministic and probabilistic record linkages are not feasible. Instead, privacy-preserving record linkages must be used to protect patients' personal data during data linkage. Objectives: To determine the feasibility and validity of a deterministic privacy preserving data linkage protocol using homomorphically encrypted data. Methods: Feasibility was measured by the number of records that successfully matched via direct identifiers. Validity was measured by the number of records that matched with multiple indirect identifiers. The threshold for feasibility and validity were both set at 95%. The datasets shared a single, direct identifier (health card number) and multiple indirect identifiers (sex and date of birth). Direct identifiers were encrypted in both datasets and then transferred to a third-party server capable of linking the encrypted identifiers without decrypting individual records. Once linked, the study team used indirect identifiers to verify the accuracy of the linkage in the final dataset. Results: With a combination of manual and automated data transfer in a sample of 8,128 individuals, the privacy-preserving data linkage took 36 days to match to a population sample of over 3.2 million records. 99.9% of the records were successfully matched with direct identifiers, and 99.8% successfully matched with multiple indirect identifiers. We deemed the linkage both feasible and valid. Conclusions: As combining administrative and research data becomes increasingly common, it is imperative to understand options for linking data when direct linkage is not feasible. The current linkage process ensured the privacy and security of patient data and improved data quality. While the initial implementations required significant computational and human resources, increased automation keeps the requirements within feasible bounds.

Pilot study of the ability to probabilistically link clinical trial patients to administrative data and determine long-term outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials are important but extremely costly. Utilization of routinely collected administrative data may simplify and enhance clinical trial data collection. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to test the feasibility of use of administrative databases in Ontario, Canada, for long-term clinical trial follow-up, specifically (a) to determine whether limited patient identifiers held by the Canadian Cancer Trials Group can be used to probabilistically link with individuals in the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences databases and if so, (b) the level of concordance between the two data sets. METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted through collaboration of established health service (Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences) and clinical trial (Canadian Cancer Trials Group) research groups in the province of Ontario, Canada, where healthcare is predominantly funded by the government. Adults with pre-treated metastatic colorectal cancer previously enrolled in the Canadian Cancer Trials Group CO.17 and CO.20 randomized phase III trials were included, limited to those in Ontario. The main outcomes were rate of successful probabilistic linkage and concordance of survival data, stated a priori. RESULTS: Probabilistic linkage was successful in 266/293 (90.8%) participants. In those patients for whom linkage was successful, the Canadian Cancer Trials Group (trial) and the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences (administrative) data sets were concordant with regard to the occurrence of death during the period of clinical trial follow-up in 206/209 (98.6%). Death was recorded in the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, but not the Canadian Cancer Trials Group, for 57 cases, where the event occurred after the clinical trial cut-off dates. The recorded date of death matched closely between both databases. During the period of clinical trial conduct, administrative databases contained details of hospitalizations and emergency room visits not captured in the clinical trial electronic database. CONCLUSION: Prospective use of administrative data could enhance clinical trial data collection, both for long-term follow-up and resource utilization for economic analyses and do so less expensively than current primary data collection. Recording a unique identifier (e.g. health insurance number) in trial databases would allow deterministic linkage for all participants.

Unlocking First Nations health information through data linkage.

INTRODUCTION: The importance of Indigenous data sovereignty and Indigenous-led research processes is increasingly being recognized in Canada and internationally. For First Nations in Ontario, Canada, access to routinely-collected demographic and health systems data is critical to planning and measuring health status and outcomes in their populations. Linkage of this data with the Indian Register (IR), under First Nations data governance, has unlocked data for use by First Nations organizations and communities. OBJECTIVES: To describe the linkage of the IR database to the Ontario Registered Persons Database (RPDB) within the context of Indigenous data sovereignty principles. METHODS: Deterministic and probabilistic record linkage methods were used to link the IR to the RPDB. There is no established population of First Nations people living in Ontario with which we could establish a linkage rate. Accordingly, several approaches were taken to determine a denominator that would represent the total population of First Nations we would hope to link to the RPDB. RESULTS: Overall, 201,678 individuals in the national IR database matched to Ontario health records by way of the RPDB, of which 98,562 were female and 103,116 were male. Of those First Nations individuals linked to the RPDB, 90.2% (n=181,915) lived in Ontario when they first registered with IR, or were affiliated with an Ontario First Nation Community. The proportion of registered First Nations people linking to the RPDB improved across time, from 62.8% in the 1960s to 94.5% in 2012. CONCLUSION: This linkage of the IR and RPDB has resulted in the creation of the largest First Nations health research study cohort in Canada. The linked data are being used by First Nations communities to answer questions that ultimately promote wellbeing, effective policy, and healing.

Describing the linkages of the immigration, refugees and citizenship Canada permanent resident data and vital statistics death registry to Ontario's administrative health database.

BACKGROUND: Ontario, the most populous province in Canada, has a universal healthcare system that routinely collects health administrative data on its 13 million legal residents that is used for health research. Record linkage has become a vital tool for this research by enriching this data with the Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada Permanent Resident (IRCC-PR) database and the Office of the Registrar General's Vital Statistics-Death (ORG-VSD) registry. Our objectives were to estimate linkage rates and compare characteristics of individuals in the linked versus unlinked files. METHODS: We used both deterministic and probabilistic linkage methods to link the IRCC-PR database (1985-2012) and ORG-VSD registry (1990-2012) to the Ontario's Registered Persons Database. Linkage rates were estimated and standardized differences were used to assess differences in socio-demographic and other characteristics between the linked and unlinked records. RESULTS: The overall linkage rates for the IRCC-PR database and ORG-VSD registry were 86.4 and 96.2 %, respectively. The majority (68.2 %) of the record linkages in IRCC-PR were achieved after three deterministic passes, 18.2 % were linked probabilistically, and 13.6 % were unlinked. Similarly the majority (79.8 %) of the record linkages in the ORG-VSD were linked using deterministic record linkage, 16.3 % were linked after probabilistic and manual review, and 3.9 % were unlinked. Unlinked and linked files were similar for most characteristics, such as age and marital status for IRCC-PR and sex and most causes of death for ORG-VSD. However, lower linkage rates were observed among people born in East Asia (78 %) in the IRCC-PR database and certain causes of death in the ORG-VSD registry, namely perinatal conditions (61.3 %) and congenital anomalies (81.3 %). CONCLUSIONS: The linkages of immigration and vital statistics data to existing population-based healthcare data in Ontario, Canada will enable many novel cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to be conducted. Analytic techniques to account for sub-optimal linkage rates may be required in studies of certain ethnic groups or certain causes of death among children and infants.

Creating a Powerful Platform to Explore Health in a Correctional Population: A Record Linkage Study.

We used record linkage to create a data repository of health information of persons who were federally incarcerated in Ontario and Canada. We obtained records from 56,867 adults who were federally incarcerated between January 1, 1998 and December 31, 2011 from the Correctional Service of Canada; 15,248 records belonged to individuals residing in Ontario, Canada. We linked these records to the Registered Persons Database (RPDB) which contained records from 18,116,996 individuals eligible for health care in Ontario. Out of 56,867 OMS records, 22,844 (40.2%) were linked to the RPDB. Looking only at those incarcerated in Ontario, 98%, (14 953 of 15248) records were linked to RPDB. Most records of persons in Ontario-based facilities were linked deterministically. Linkage rates were lower for women, minority groups, and substance users. In conclusion, record linkage enabled the creation of a valuable data repository: there are no electronic medical records for correctional populations in Canada, making it more difficult to profile their health.

Getting rhythm: how do babies do it?

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the emergence of biological rhythms in the first months of life in human infants, by measuring age-related changes in core body temperature during night-time sleep, hormones (cortisol and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin) and the expression of a clock-controlled gene H3f3b in oral epithelial cells. DESIGN: Observational longitudinal study. SETTING: We measured overnight core body temperature, actigraphy, day-night urinary cortisol and 6-sulfatoxymelatonin, as well as circadian gene expression, in infants at home from March 2007 to July 2008 in Leicester. PARTICIPANTS: We recruited 35 healthy Caucasian infants who were born at term. They were monitored from 6 to 18 weeks of age. RESULTS: At 8 weeks of age the day-night rhythm of cortisol secretion was the first to appear followed by 6-sulfatoxymelatonin 1 week later; at the same time that night-time sleep was established. At 10 weeks, the maximum fall in deep body temperature occurred with the onset of night-time sleep, followed at 11 weeks by the rhythmical expression of the H3f3b gene. CONCLUSIONS: In human infants, there is a clear sequential pattern for the emergence of diurnal biological rhythms between 6 and 18 weeks of postnatal age, led by the secretion of cortisol and linked with the establishment of consolidated night-time sleep. It is likely that this represents part of a maturation and adaption process as infants gain equilibrium with their external environment after birth.

Clinical and prognostic factors associated with diagnostic wait times by breast cancer detection method.

INTRODUCTION: Although prognostic differences between screen-detected, interval and symptomatic breast cancers are known, factors associated with wait times to diagnosis among these three groups have not been studied. METHODS: Of the 16,373 invasive breast cancers diagnosed between January 1, 1995 and December 31, 2003 in a cohort of Ontario women aged 50 to 69, a random sample (N = 2,615) were selected for chart abstraction. Eligible women were classified according to detection method; screen-detected (n = 1181), interval (n = 319) or symptomatic (n = 406). Diagnostic wait time was calculated from the initial imaging or biopsy to breast cancer diagnosis. Logistic regression analysis examined associations between diagnostic wait times dichotomized as greater or less than the median and demographic, clinical and prognostic factors separately for each detection cohort. RESULTS: Women who underwent an open biopsy had significantly longer than median wait times to diagnosis, compared to women who underwent a fine needle aspiration or core biopsy; (screen-detected OR = 2.76, 95% CI = 2.14-3.56; interval OR = 2.56, 95% CI = 1.50-4.35; symptomatic OR = 5.56, 95% CI = 3.33-9.30). Additionally, screen-detected breast cancers diagnosed with stage II and symptomatic cancers diagnosed at stage III or IV had significantly shorter diagnostic wait times compared to those diagnosed at stage 1 (OR = 0.66 95% CI = 0.50-0.87 and OR = 0.46, 95% CI = 0.25-0.85 respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Our study is consistent with expedited diagnostic work-up for breast cancers with more advanced prognostic features. Furthermore, women who had an open surgical biopsy had a greater than the median diagnostic wait time, irrespective of detection method.

Factors associated with wait times across the breast cancer treatment pathway in Ontario.

BACKGROUND: Longer times from diagnosis to breast cancer treatment are associated with poorer prognosis. This study examined factors associated with wait times by phase in the breast cancer treatment pathway. METHODS: There were 1760 women eligible for the study, aged 50-69 diagnosed in Ontario with invasive breast cancer from 1995-2003. Multivariate logistic regression examined factors associated with greater than median wait times for each phase of the treatment pathway; from diagnosis to definitive surgery; from final surgery to radiotherapy without chemotherapy and from final surgery to chemotherapy. RESULTS: The median wait times were 17 days (Inter Quartile Range (IQR) = 0-31) from diagnosis to definitive surgery, 44 days (IQR = 34-56) from final surgery to postoperative chemotherapy and 75 days (IQR = 57-97) from final surgery to postoperative radiotherapy. Diagnosis during 2000-2003 compared to 1995-1999 was associated with significantly longer wait times for each phase of the treatment pathway. Higher income quintile was associated with longer wait time from diagnosis to surgery (OR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.05-2.06) and shorter wait times from final surgery to radiotherapy (OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.37-0.96). Greater stage at diagnosis was associated with shorter wait times from diagnosis to definitive surgery (stage III vs I: OR = 0.49, 95% CI = 0.34-0.71). CONCLUSIONS: While diagnosis during the latter part of the study period was associated with significantly longer wait times for all phases of the treatment pathway, there were variations in the associations of stage and income quintile with wait times by treatment phase. Continued assessment of factors associated with wait times across the breast cancer treatment pathway is important, as they indicate areas to be targeted for quality improvement with the ultimate goal of improving prognosis.

STARS is essential to maintain cardiac development and function in vivo via a SRF pathway.

BACKGROUND: STARS (STriated muscle Activator of Rho Signaling) is a sarcomeric protein expressed early in cardiac development that acts as an acute stress sensor for pathological remodeling. However the role of STARS in cardiac development and function is incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the role of STARS in heart development and function in the zebrafish model and in vitro. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Expression of zebrafish STARS (zSTARS) first occurs in the somites by the 16 somite stage [17 hours post fertilization (hpf)]. zSTARS is expressed in both chambers of the heart by 48 hpf, and also in the developing brain, jaw structures and pectoral fins. Morpholino-induced knockdown of zSTARS alters atrial and ventricular dimensions and decreases ventricular fractional shortening (measured by high-speed video microscopy), with pericardial edema and decreased or absent circulation [abnormal cardiac phenotypes in 126/164 (77%) of morpholino-injected embryos vs. 0/152 (0%) of control morpholino embryos]. Co-injection of zsrf (serum response factor) mRNA rescues the cardiac phenotype of zSTARS knockdown, resulting in improved fractional shortening and ventricular end-diastolic dimensions. Ectopic over-expression of STARS in vitro activates the STARS proximal promoter, which contains a conserved SRF site. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrates that SRF binds to this site in vivo and the SRF inhibitor CCG-1423 completely blocks STARS proximal reporter activity in H9c2 cells. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates for the first time that STARS deficiency severely disrupts cardiac development and function in vivo and revealed a novel STARS-SRF feed-forward autoregulatory loop that could play an essential role in STARS regulation and cardiac function.

Cardiac expression of ms1/STARS, a novel gene involved in cardiac development and disease, is regulated by GATA4.

Ms1/STARS is a novel muscle-specific actin-binding protein that specifically modulates the myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF)-serum response factor (SRF) regulatory axis within striated muscle. This ms1/STARS-dependent regulatory axis is of central importance within the cardiac gene regulatory network and has been implicated in cardiac development and postnatal cardiac function/homeostasis. The dysregulation of ms1/STARS is associated with and causative of pathological cardiac phenotypes, including cardiac hypertrophy and cardiomyopathy. In order to gain an understanding of the mechanisms governing ms1/STARS expression in the heart, we have coupled a comparative genomic in silico analysis with reporter, gain-of-function, and loss-of-function approaches. Through this integrated analysis, we have identified three evolutionarily conserved regions (ECRs), α, SINA, and DINA, that act as cis-regulatory modules and confer differential cardiac cell-specific activity. Two of these ECRs, α and DINA, displayed distinct regulatory sensitivity to the core cardiac transcription factor GATA4. Overall, our results demonstrate that within embryonic, neonatal, and adult hearts, GATA4 represses ms1/STARS expression with the pathologically associated depletion of GATA4 (type 1/type 2 diabetic models), resulting in ms1/STARS upregulation. This GATA4-dependent repression of ms1/STARS expression has major implications for MRTF-SRF signaling in the context of cardiac development and disease.

Favourable prognostic factors of subsequent screen-detected breast cancers among women aged 50-69.

Most studies reporting more favourable biological features of screen-detected breast cancers compared with symptomatic or interval cancers include initial or prevalent screens and therefore may not indicate the real benefit of screening on breast cancer mortality. We conducted case-case comparisons within a cohort of eligible women (N=771 715) who were aged 50-69 between 1 January 1995 and 31 December 2003. A randomly selected sample of breast cancers (N=1848) diagnosed among these women were compared by detection method. Tumour characteristics of interval cancers (N=362) diagnosed after 6-24 months of a negative screen or symptomatic breast cancers (N=491) were compared with subsequent screen-detected breast cancers diagnosed within 6 months of a positive screen (N=995) using polytomous logistic regression. Tumours were evaluated for clinical presentation, histology and expression of hormone receptors. Women with symptomatic detected [odds ratio (OR)=7.48, 95% confidence interval (CI)=5.38-10.38] and interval cancers (OR=2.20, 95% CI=1.56-3.10) were more often diagnosed at stage III-IV versus I than women with rescreen-detected cancers. After adjusting for tumour size, women with symptomatic cancers had tumours of higher grade (OR=1.50, 95% CI=1.05-2.15) and mitotic score (OR=1.69, 95% CI=1.15-2.49) and women with interval cancers had tumours of higher mitotic score (OR=1.52, 95% CI=1.01-2.28) compared with women diagnosed at screening. Subsequent screen-detected cancers are not only detected at an earlier stage but are also less aggressive, leading to a better prognosis. As long-term mortality reduction for breast screening may depend on subsequent screens, our study indicates that mammography screening can be effective in women aged 50-69.

Melatonin synthesis in retina: cAMP-dependent transcriptional regulation of chicken arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase by a CRE-like sequence and a TTATT repeat motif in the proximal promoter.

Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) is the key regulatory enzyme controlling the daily rhythm of melatonin biosynthesis. In chicken retinal photoreceptor cells, Aanat transcription and AANAT activity are regulated in part by cAMP-dependent mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to identify regulatory elements within the chicken Aanat promoter responsible for cAMP-dependent induction. Photoreceptor-enriched retinal cell cultures were transfected with a luciferase reporter construct containing up to 4 kb of 5'-flanking region and the first exon of Aanat. Forskolin treatment stimulated luciferase activity driven by the ∼4 kb promoter construct and by all 5'-deletion constructs except the smallest, Aanat (-217 to +120)luc. Maximal basal and forskolin-stimulated expression levels were generated by the Aanat (-484 to +120)luc construct. This construct lacks a canonical cyclic AMP-response element (CRE), but contains two other potentially important elements in its sequence: an eight times TTATT repeat (TTATT8) and a CRE-like sequence. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays, luciferase reporter assays, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and siRNA experiments provide evidence that these elements bind c-Fos, JunD, and CREB to enhance basal and forskolin-stimulated Aanat transcription. We propose that the CRE-like sequence and TTATT8 elements in the 484 bp proximal promoter interact to mediate cAMP-dependent transcriptional regulation of Aanat.

Myocyte stress 1 plays an important role in cellular hypertrophy and protection against apoptosis.

Myocyte stress 1 (MS1) is a recently described striated muscle actin-binding protein that is up-regulated in the early stages of pressure overload left ventricular hypertrophy. The aim of this study was to determine whether MS1 induces cellular hypertrophy and protects against apoptosis. Over-expressed MS1 co-localized with actin in H9c2 cells and altered expression of genes of the myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF)/serum response factor (SRF) transcriptional pathways and in addition the apoptosis repressor with caspase recruitment domain (Nol3) gene. The size of cells over-expressing MS1 was significantly increased by 55% and over-expression of MS1 dramatically inhibited staurosporine-induced apoptosis by 89%. These findings suggest the involvement of MS1 in cellular hypertrophy and protection against apoptosis.

The canonical E-box motif: a target for glucocorticoid action that drives rhythmic mouse Pai-1 transcription in vitro.

Circadian (approximately 24 h) control impinges on an array of diverse physiological processes in many organisms, ranging from plants to human. Disruption of the mammalian circadian clockwork can lead to severe chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, cancer progression and metabolic disorders. Transcriptional regulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) is of particular importance because of its crucial role in these pathological conditions. Pai-1 expression is partly regulated by the circadian clock, although direct mechanisms on Pai-1 rhythmicity are unknown. In the present study, we have identified a conserved functional E-box cis-element in the distal part of the mouse Pai-1 gene that is necessary and sufficient to drive circadian expression in Pai-1 activity after dexamethasone synchronisation in vitro. Mutagenesis and in vitro transfection analysis indicated this E-box provides a cognate binding site for cross-talk between clock and hypoxia factors, thus providing a potential cooperation mechanism between circadian and stress pathways, which is conserved in the human Pai-1 gene. Together, these results suggest that the canonical E-box is a target for glucocorticoid action, thus providing the molecular interface between gene transcription and drug action. The mechanism described has global impact on diverse dynamic biological processes governed by the neuroendocrine axis and the circadian clockwork to control complex coordination of gene cascades and biology.

Comparative in silico analysis identifies bona fide MyoD binding sites within the Myocyte stress 1 gene promoter.

BACKGROUND: Myocyte stress 1 (MS1) is a striated muscle actin binding protein required for the muscle specific activity of the evolutionary ancient myocardin related transcription factor (MRTF)/serum response factor (SRF) transcriptional pathway. To date, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that govern skeletal muscle specific expression of MS1. Such mechanisms are likely to play a major role in modulating SRF activity and therefore muscle determination, differentiation and regeneration. In this study we employed a comparative in silico analysis coupled with an experimental promoter characterisation to delineate these mechanisms. RESULTS: Analysis of MS1 expression in differentiating C2C12 muscle cells demonstrated a temporal differentiation dependent up-regulation in ms1 mRNA. An in silico comparative sequence analysis identified two conserved putative myogenic regulatory domains within the proximal 1.5 kbp of 5' upstream sequence. Co-transfecting C2C12 myoblasts with ms1 promoter/luciferase reporters and myogenic regulatory factor (MRF) over-expression plasmids revealed specific sensitivity of the ms1 promoter to MyoD. Subsequent mutagenesis and EMSA analysis demonstrated specific targeting of MyoD at two distinct E-Boxes (E1 and E2) within identified evolutionary conserved regions (ECRs, alpha and beta). Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis indicates that co-ordinated binding of MyoD at E-Boxes located within ECRs alpha and beta correlates with the temporal induction in ms1 mRNA. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that the tissue specific and differentiation dependent up-regulation in ms1 mRNA is mediated by temporal binding of MyoD at distinct evolutionary conserved E-Boxes within the ms1 5' upstream sequence. We believe, through its activation of ms1, this is the first study to demonstrate a direct link between MyoD activity and SRF transcriptional signalling, with clear implications for the understanding of muscle determination, differentiation and regeneration.

Circadian clock genes cause activation of the human PAI-1 gene promoter with 4G/5G allelic preference.

Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) activity is associated with greater risk of myocardial infarction. PAI-1 expression is regulated by a 4G/5G promoter polymorphism. The 4G allele is associated with higher PAI-levels and greater circadian variation. Here we show that clock protein heterodimers BMAL/CLOCK cause greater activation (approximately 2-fold, P<0.05) of the 4G allele. Site-directed mutagenesis studies suggest that clock genes act on two canonical E-boxes to regulate PAI-1 promoter activity. These results identify a potential novel mechanism whereby allele-specific clock genes - mediated modulation of PAI-1 expression may contribute to circadian variation in cardiac risk.

Characterization of expressed sequence tags from a gallus gallus pineal gland cDNA library.

The pineal gland is the circadian oscillator in the chicken, regulating diverse functions ranging from egg laying to feeding. Here, we describe the isolation and characterization of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) isolated from a chicken pineal gland cDNA library. A total of 192 unique sequences were analysed and submitted to GenBank; 6% of the ESTs matched neither GenBank cDNA sequences nor the newly assembled chicken genomic DNA sequence, three ESTs aligned with sequences designated to be on the Z_random, while one matched a W chromosome sequence and could be useful in cataloguing functionally important genes on this sex chromosome. Additionally, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified and validated in 10 ESTs that showed 98% or higher sequence similarity to known chicken genes. Here, we have described resources that may be useful in comparative and functional genomic analysis of genes expressed in an important organ, the pineal gland, in a model and agriculturally important organism.

Temporal-spatial characterization of chicken clock genes: circadian expression in retina, pineal gland, and peripheral tissues.

The molecular core of the vertebrate circadian clock is a set of clock genes, whose products interact to control circadian changes in physiology. These clock genes are expressed in all tissues known to possess an endogenous self-sustaining clock, and many are also found in peripheral tissues. In the present study, the expression patterns of two clock genes, cBmal1 and cMOP4, were examined in the chicken, a useful model for analysis of the avian circadian system. In two tissues which contain endogenous clocks--the pineal gland and retina--circadian fluctuations of both cBmal1 and cMOP4 mRNAs were observed to be synchronous; highest levels occurred at Zeitgeber time 12. Expression of these genes is also rhythmic in several peripheral tissues; however, the phases of these rhythms differ from those in the pineal gland and retina: in the liver the peaks of cMOP4 and cBmal1 mRNAs are delayed 4-8 h and in the heart they are advanced by 4 h, relative to those in the pineal gland and retina. These results provide the first temporal characterization of cBmal1 and cMOP4 mRNAs in avian tissues: their presence in avian peripheral tissues indicates they may influence temporal features of daily rhythms in biochemical, physiological, and behavioral functions at these sites.

ms1, a novel stress-responsive, muscle-specific gene that is up-regulated in the early stages of pressure overload-induced left ventricular hypertrophy.

We have identified and characterised a cDNA encoding a novel gene, designated myocyte stress 1 (ms1), that is up-regulated within 1 h in the left ventricle following the application of pressure overload by aortic banding in the rat. The deduced ms1 protein of 317 amino acids contains several putative functional motifs, including a region that is evolutionarily conserved. Distribution analysis indicates that rat ms1 mRNA expression is predominantly expressed in striated muscle and progressively increases in the left ventricle from embryo to adulthood. These findings suggest that ms1 may be important in striated muscle biology and the development of pressure-induced left ventricular hypertrophy.