Advancement in the Breeding, Biotechnological and Genomic Tools towards Development of Durable Genetic Resistance against the Rice Blast Disease.

Rice production needs to be sustained in the coming decades, as the changeable climatic conditions are becoming more conducive to disease outbreaks. The majority of rice diseases cause enormous economic damage and yield instability. Among them, rice blast caused by Magnaportheoryzae is a serious fungal disease and is considered one of the major threats to world rice production. This pathogen can infect the above-ground tissues of rice plants at any growth stage and causes complete crop failure under favorable conditions. Therefore, management of blast disease is essentially required to sustain global food production. When looking at the drawback of chemical management strategy, the development of durable, resistant varieties is one of the most sustainable, economic, and environment-friendly approaches to counter the outbreaks of rice blasts. Interestingly, several blast-resistant rice cultivars have been developed with the help of breeding and biotechnological methods. In addition, 146 R genes have been identified, and 37 among them have been molecularly characterized to date. Further, more than 500 loci have been identified for blast resistance which enhances the resources for developing blast resistance through marker-assisted selection (MAS), marker-assisted backcross breeding (MABB), and genome editing tools. Apart from these, a better understanding of rice blast pathogens, the infection process of the pathogen, and the genetics of the immune response of the host plant are very important for the effective management of the blast disease. Further, high throughput phenotyping and disease screening protocols have played significant roles in easy comprehension of the mechanism of disease spread. The present review critically emphasizes the pathogenesis, pathogenomics, screening techniques, traditional and molecular breeding approaches, and transgenic and genome editing tools to develop a broad spectrum and durable resistance against blast disease in rice. The updated and comprehensive information presented in this review would be definitely helpful for the researchers, breeders, and students in the planning and execution of a resistance breeding program in rice against this pathogen.

Interactions of Bacillus spp. and plants--with special reference to induced systemic resistance (ISR).

Biological control of soil-borne pathogens comprises the decrease of inoculum or of the disease producing activity of a pathogen through one or more mechanisms. Interest in biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens has increased considerably in the last few decades, because it may provide control of diseases that cannot or only partly be managed by other control strategies. Recent advances in microbial and molecular techniques have significantly contributed to new insights in underlying mechanisms by which introduced bacteria function. Colonization of plant roots is an essential step for both soil-borne pathogenic and beneficial rhizobacteria. Colonization patterns showed that rhizobacteria act as biocontrol agents or as growth-promoting bacteria form microcolonies or biofilms at preferred sites of root exudation. Such microcolonies are sites for bacteria to communicate with each other (quorum sensing) and to act in a coordinated manner. Elicitation of induced systemic resistance (ISR) by plant-associated bacteria was initially demonstrated using Pseudomonas spp. and other Gram-negative bacteria. Several strains of the species Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, B. subtilis, B. pasteurii, B. cereus, B. pumilus, B. mycoides, and B. sphaericus elicit significant reductions in the incidence or severity of various diseases on a diversity of hosts. Elicitation of ISR by these strains has been demonstrated in greenhouse or field trials on tomato, bell pepper, muskmelon, watermelon, sugar beet, tobacco, Arabidopsis sp., cucumber, loblolly pine, and two tropical crops (long cayenne pepper and green kuang futsoi). Protection resulting from ISR elicited by Bacillus spp. has been reported against leaf-spotting fungal and bacterial pathogens, systemic viruses, a crown-rotting fungal pathogen, root-knot nematodes, and a stem-blight fungal pathogen as well as damping-off, blue mold, and late blight diseases. This progress will lead to a more efficient use of these strains which is worthwhile approach to explore in context of biocontrol strategies.

Induced systemic resistance (ISR) in plants: mechanism of action.

Plants possess a range of active defense apparatuses that can be actively expressed in response to biotic stresses (pathogens and parasites) of various scales (ranging from microscopic viruses to phytophagous insect). The timing of this defense response is critical and reflects on the difference between coping and succumbing to such biotic challenge of necrotizing pathogens/parasites. If defense mechanisms are triggered by a stimulus prior to infection by a plant pathogen, disease can be reduced. Induced resistance is a state of enhanced defensive capacity developed by a plant when appropriately stimulated. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR) are two forms of induced resistance wherein plant defenses are preconditioned by prior infection or treatment that results in resistance against subsequent challenge by a pathogen or parasite. Selected strains of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) suppress diseases by antagonism between the bacteria and soil-borne pathogens as well as by inducing a systemic resistance in plant against both root and foliar pathogens. Rhizobacteria mediated ISR resembles that of pathogen induced SAR in that both types of induced resistance render uninfected plant parts more resistant towards a broad spectrum of plant pathogens. Several rhizobacteria trigger the salicylic acid (SA)-dependent SAR pathway by producing SA at the root surface whereas other rhizobacteria trigger different signaling pathway independent of SA. The existence of SA-independent ISR pathway has been studied in Arabidopsis thaliana, which is dependent on jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene signaling. Specific Pseudomonas strains induce systemic resistance in viz., carnation, cucumber, radish, tobacco, and Arabidopsis, as evidenced by an enhanced defensive capacity upon challenge inoculation. Combination of ISR and SAR can increase protection against pathogens that are resisted through both pathways besides extended protection to a broader spectrum of pathogens than ISR/SAR alone. Beside Pseudomonas strains, ISR is conducted by Bacillus spp. wherein published results show that several specific strains of species B. amyloliquifaciens, B. subtilis, B. pasteurii, B. cereus, B. pumilus, B. mycoides, and B.sphaericus elicit significant reduction in the incidence or severity of various diseases on a diversity of hosts.