ABSTRACT
BMP6 is a central cytokine in the induction of Sjögren's syndrome-associated (SS-associated) secretory hypofunction. However, the upstream initiation leading to the production of this cytokine in SS is unknown. In this study, RNA ISH on salivary gland sections taken from patients with SS indicated monocytic lineage cells as a cellular source of BMP6. RNA-Seq data on human salivary glands suggested that TLR4 signaling was an upstream regulator of BMP6, which was confirmed by in vitro cell assays and single-cell transcriptomics of human PBMCs. Further investigation showed that HSP70 was an endogenous natural TLR4 ligand that stimulated BMP6 expression in SS. Release of HSP70 from epithelial cells could be triggered by overexpression of lysosome-associated membrane protein 3 (LAMP3), a protein also associated with SS in several transcriptome studies. In vitro studies supported the idea that HSP70 was released as a result of lysosomal exocytosis initiated by LAMP3 expression, and reverse transcription PCR on RNA from minor salivary glands of patients with SS confirmed a positive correlation between BMP6 and LAMP3 expression. BMP6 expression could be experimentally induced in mice by overexpression of LAMP3, which developed an SS-like phenotype. The newly identified LAMP3/HSP70/BMP6 axis provided an etiological model for SS gland dysfunction and autoimmunity.
Subject(s)
Sjogren's Syndrome , Animals , Bone Morphogenetic Protein 6/genetics , Cytokines , Exocytosis , HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins/genetics , Humans , Lysosomes/genetics , Lysosomes/metabolism , Mice , RNA , Sjogren's Syndrome/genetics , Sjogren's Syndrome/metabolism , Toll-Like Receptor 4ABSTRACT
In clinical development, adequate and well-controlled randomised clinical trials are usually conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of test treatment under investigation. The purpose is to ensure that there is an accurate and reliable assessment of test treatment under study. In practice, however, some controversial issues inevitably appear despite the compliance of good clinical practice. These debatable issues include, but are not limited to, (1) appropriateness of hypotheses for clinical investigation, (2) feasibility of power calculation for sample size requirement, (3) integrity of randomisation/blinding, (4) strategy for clinical endpoint selection, (5) demonstrating effectiveness or ineffectiveness, (6) impact of protocol amendments and (7) independence of independent data monitoring committee. In this article, these controversial issues are discussed. The impact of these issues in evaluating the safety and efficacy of the test treatment under investigation is also assessed. Recommendations regarding possible resolutions to these issues are provided whenever possible.
