Optimal surface estimation and thresholding of confocal microscope images of biofilms using Beer's Law.

Beer's Law explains how light attenuates into thick specimens, including thick biofilms. We use a Bayesian optimality criterion, the maximum of the posterior probability distribution, and computationally efficiently fit Beer's Law to the 3D intensity data collected from thick living biofilms by a confocal scanning laser microscope. Using this approach the top surface of the biofilm and an optimal image threshold can be estimated. Biofilm characteristics, such as bio-volumes, can be calculated from this surface. Results from the Bayesian approach are compared to other approaches including the method of maximum likelihood or simply counting bright pixels. Uncertainty quantification (i.e., error bars) can be provided for the parameters of interest. This approach is applied to confocal images of stained biofilms of a common lab strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, stained biofilms of Janthinobacterium isolated from the Antarctic, and biofilms of Staphylococcusaureus that have been genetically modified to fluoresce green.

Adalbert J. Volck (1828-1912): Confederate dentist, artist and anti-Lincoln satirist.

Dr. Adalbert Volck, a native of Bavaria, Germany, was a man of many talents: he was a skilled, innovative and versatile dentist, artist, artisan, craftsman, and a Confederate Civil War cartoonist and caricaturist. In 1848, after participating in a national revolution gone sour, Volck emigrated to the U.S. In 1852, Volck received his DDS degree from the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, and subsequently, he established a life-long residency and dental practice in Baltimore. Dr. Volck gave staunch support to the spirit and force of organized dentistry. Among his professional accomplishments was his work in the early development of dental porcelain restorations. Although he was a non-combatant in the U.S. Civil War, Volck demonstrated his loyalty to the Southern cause by becoming a blockade runner; smuggler of drugs and medical supplies; "safe house" operator for Confederate soldiers and agents; Rebel spy; and personal courier for Jefferson Davis (the President of the Confederacy). The popular anti-Confederacy political cartoons of the great Thomas Nast inspired Volck to execute similar lampoons against the Union. Early in the war, Volck, through his caricatures, attacked the person and policies of President Lincoln and his Northern leaders. By using irony, sarcasm and ridicule, Volck attempted to sway popular sentiment toward the South.

Thomas B. Welch, MD, DDS: journalist, innovator and grape juice king.

Dr. Thomas B. ("T.B.") Welch was not an ordinary man. An inventive, creative and deeply religious individual, he intermittently practiced three professions--the ministry, medicine and dentistry. In his role as a minister, he developed a pasteurized, unfermented grape juice to be used during the communion service. He believed that he was truly serving God by enabling parishioners to partake a non-alcoholic "fruit of the vine." At that time, wine (the alcohol-containing "cup of devils") was traditionally used. Although T.B.'s efforts were in vain, those of his son, Charles ("C.E.") Welch were far more successful. C.E. had greater entrepreneurial talents than his father. By the time Charles died in 1926, he had made Welch's Grape Juice a familiar household product. As a distinguished New Jersey dentist. Dr. Tom made many contributions to his profession. He greatly improved the quality of dental amalgam and cement, and his dental products were so successful commercially, that he quit the practice of dentistry sooner than anticipated. Additionally, he created, edited and wrote Dental Items of Interest, a professional journal with the second largest circulation in the country. Later, he edited several other dental journals. Of his seven children, three sons and one daughter followed him into the dental profession. T.B. was also a gifted poet. Possessing a keen interest in the English language, he attempted to simplify spelling by using phonetics. However, this endeavor failed.

Edgar Buchanan: dentist and popular character actor in movies and television.

Edgar Buchanan, D.D.S., pursued a diverse mix of careers during his lifetime: as he practiced dentistry, he also worked as a popular film and television actor. Although he eventually relinquished a full-time dental practice for acting, he continued his commitment to clinical dentistry. Acting in 100 films and four television series across a 35-year span (1939-1975). He personified a scheming, yet well-meaning rustic who specialized in "cracker-barrel" philosophy. Typically, he was cast in classic western movies as a bewhiskered character actor. In several films he played a frontier dentist who was always portrayed in a sympathetic and authentic manner. His unique gravelly voice, subtle facial expressions, folksy mannerisms and portly build enabled Buchanan to step into a wide variety of character roles. His most memorable television role was in the classic situation comedy, "Petticoat Junction," (1963-1970), where he played Uncle Joe, a folksy, lovable, free-loader whose many entertaining schemes created chaos.

Charles G. Pease, DDS, MD: anti-tobacco crusader and clean life advocate.

Dr. Charles Giffin Pease, a colorful, feisty, New York City reformer practiced both dentistry and medicine and lectured in various dental and medical schools. At several New York dental institutions, he taught oral surgery, materia medica, therapeutics and pathology. From the age of 12 until his death (a 75 year span) Pease waged an unrelenting war against "everything that harms the human race." He wrote and lectured unceasingly railing against what he believed to be life damaging behaviors. These included: tobacco use; alcohol, coffee, tea and ginger ale consumption; corset wearing; vinegar, meat, cocoa, chocolate and condiment intake, and even the licking of artificially flavored lollipops. While he was adamantly opposed to all of these practices, he invested his strongest efforts campaigning against the manufacture, sale and use of tobacco products; and he emphatically supported clean living causes. His anti-tobacco stance was based chiefly on moral, ethical and religious precepts. Additionally, he expected community role models (public health officials, clergymen, physicians and dentists) to become involved in this vital health issue. When publicly presenting his cause, he used a moralistic, judgmental approach. Almost single handedly, Pease spear-headed legislation that prohibited smoking in subways, elevated trains, hotels and restaurants.

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia from two coupled pacemakers.

We reproduce global features of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a prominent source of heart rate variability, from two signals coupled in alternate fashion so dominance periodically switches back and forth between them. We consider two different possibilities for this coupling and illustrate our method with numerical simulations that we contrast with the corresponding results from real data. We interpret our findings within the context of the two-pacemaker model of the heartbeat, an alternative to the single-pacemaker mechanism of pulse generation in the orthodox conduction model.

Cary Middlecoff (1921-1998): dentistry's top golfer.

Between the late 1930s and mid-1950s, Dr. E. Cary Middlecoff, a one-time dentist from Memphis, Tennessee, and later, professional golfer, set the golf world on fire. His prestigious 16-year amateur and professional record became legendary. During his career, he won 40 professional tournaments, including the 1955 Masters and two U.S. National Open titles (1949 and 1956). Overall, in 91 tournaments, Middlecoff never placed lower than third. Fellow golf professionals acknowledged him as a talented and formidable competitor. He was a long, straight driver and an accomplished long-iron player who possessed an unorthodox, but accurate, putting style. Although he sometimes commented that he became a "bale of nerves" before competing, he was known to perform admirably while under extreme pressure. Cary concentrated on each hole with "exasperating deliberation," and paid compulsive attention to every detail of his game. In spite of his slow and intense play, he refused to dwell on a poor shot, an unproductive hole or a disappointing round. After leaving the tour circuit in 1963, Middlecoff spent the following 18 years working as a TV golf analyst. In 1986, he was elected as a PGA Hall of Fame member.

Alvin C. Kraenzlein, DDS and Walter B. Tewksbury, DDS: Olympic medal winners.

As contemporaries, Alvin C. Kraenzlein, and Walter B. Tewksbury had a great deal in common. They were both outstanding athletic performers and each became an intercollegiate record holder in track and field. In 1898, the New York Times reported that the University of Pennsylvania "at present has the best college athletes in the world, its two particular stars being Kraenzlein and Tewksbury." As close friends and college roommates during their student years at the University of Pennsylvania College of Dentistry, these two young men graduated in close succession (Walter, 1899; Alvin, 1900). Between them, Alvin and Walter won nine Olympic medals in Paris in 1900. Ultimately, as dentists and athletes, they individually and corporately left indelible imprints on track and field for all time.

On the analysis of accumulation curves.

Identifying and counting the total number of biological species observed, when plotted against a measure of the effort used to record them, gives rise to a species accumulation curve. We investigate estimation of the total number of species and other relevant properties of accumulation by elaborating on the multinomial model (Nakamura and Peraza, 1998, Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics, 3, 17-36) that includes specification of a beta density for recording probabilities. We consider a unified description including complete and incomplete (aggregated) curves, a more general scheme for recording, and a Bayesian framework to allow for inclusion of the biologist's knowledge with regard to typical recording probabilities and the total number of species. The beta distribution is used as a prior, but recording probabilities are not restrained to be beta distributed. The methods yield either closed analytical expressions for inference or relatively simple numerical procedures. Predictive distributions of future recordings that would eventually lead to an optimal decision-theoretical rule for stopping collection effort may be easily calculated. A case study regarding species of bats is considered, including some guidelines for elicitation of an informative prior.

"It Didn't Hurt a Bit" Kid: dental precursor to Mad Magazine's Alfred E. Neuman.

Since 1956, Mad Magazine has featured the same unique character on virtually every cover: a grinning, freckle-faced, red-headed boy with a missing central incisor and enormous protruding ears. Known as "Alfred E. Neuman," the "What--Me Worry?" Kid, he has become one of the most widely recognized images in the modern Western world. Capturing the imagination of Mad readers, he is portrayed as a comical figure with contradictory characteristics: he is a likeable, inept, inspiring, mischievous, quintessential nerd.

Alfred P. Southwick, MDS, DDS: dental practitioner, educator and originator of electrical executions.

The search for a modern, humane method of criminal execution was triggered by a freak accident which occurred in Buffalo, New York in 1881. Dr. Alfred P. Southwick (a former steam-boat engineer, noted dentist and dental educator) happened to witness an intoxicated man die after he inadvertently touched a live generator terminal. Southwick's initial reaction was shock. Later, as he pondered this tragic event, he concluded that electrocution was, at least, a quick and seemingly painless way to depart from this earth. As his thoughts turned to common methods of capital punishment, Alfred concluded that death by electrocution could become a more humane alternative, as compared with the more grisly methods (e.g., hanging, beheading by guillotine, garroting, suffocation and flaying). Working through the governor of New York and the state legislature, Southwick originated and successfully promoted the passage of laws which mandated electrical executions in New York and in approximately 20 other states. During 1888-1889, Southwick served on the state's three-person Electrical Death Commission, a group who reported that electrical execution was superior to all other methods. On January 1, 1889, the world's first electrical execution law went into effect. On August 6, 1890, William Francis Kemmler, who had murdered his mistress, was the first person to die in the electric chair. However, this public event became an amateurish spectacle: the initial surge of current did not cause Kemmler's immediate death and a second jolt was needed. Those who witnessed this bungled execution were stunned. Graphic and detailed criticism from both the press and the general public ran high. However, Dr. Southwick vigorously continued to support and finally achieve his goal--to humanize capital punishment through the legal use of electrical execution.

Sozodont powder dentifrice and Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup: dental nostrums.

The Great Patent Medicine Era (1865-1907) was the golden age of secret remedies--quack, non-prescription medicinal products, sold over-the-counter. Making outrageous and unsubstantiated claims, the makers of dental nostrums purported to effectively treat stained teeth, bad breath, diseased gums, toothache and teething discomfort. No proof was required to substantiate the safety and effectiveness of these concoctions. Advertisements for patent medicines were widespread, appearing in newspapers, almanacs, magazines, trade cards and multiple other media forms. Many dental patent medicines contained acids, abrasive substances, alcohol and/or narcotics, such as heroin, cocaine and morphine. Sozodont Tooth Powder, the most widely promoted and successful dentifrice of this era, claimed to "harden and invigorate the gums, purify and perfume the breath and beautify and preserve the teeth from youth to old age." Early dental researchers found that this remedy contained harsh ingredients (such as acid, sharp abrasives and astringents) which could destroy tooth substance. Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup, an extremely popular dental nostrum, was intended to quiet a fretful child during the teething process. However, it contained generous levels of alcohol and morphine sulfate which could cause coma, addiction or death in an infant. Although somewhat chemically altered, these two products were eventually removed from the market in the 1930s.

Martin Van Butchell (1735-1814): the eccentric, "kook" dentist of old London.

This article is a thumbnail sketch of the life and times of Martin Van Butchell (1735-1814), an eccentric, "kook" advertising dentist of Old London. Van Butchell earned these descriptive labels by displaying an unorthodox lifestyle, an outrageous personal appearance and outlandish, extreme and socially unacceptable personal and professional behaviors. While the general populace seemed to be fascinated by his strange ways, dentists and physicians were generally alienated by them. Nevertheless, he was considered a good dentist for his time, and he was extremely popular with his patients. Martin practiced dentistry for 23 years, and he practiced medicine as well, specializing in the treatment of ruptures and anal fistulas. Van Butchell interacted greatly with both John and William Hunter, who became two of the most famous and talented physicians, surgeons, anatomists and biologists of all time. When his first wife, Mary died, Martin arranged for her body to be embalmed and publicly displayed in his dental office for advertising purposes. Her preserved body was shown at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons (London), until it was destroyed by a German fire bomb in May, 1941. Mary's remains were on public display for a total of 166 years.

Henry Daniel Cogswell, DDS (1819-1900): a temperance advocate, philanthropist and builder of ice-water fountains.

Henry Daniel Cogswell (Fig. 1), the second of five children, was born in Tolland, Connecticut on March 3, 1819. His father, George Washington Cogswell, was a general carpenter, architect and builder of moderate circumstances. In 1827, when Henry was eight, his mother died. The following year, Henry's father moved to Orwell, (Oswego County) New York, in hopes of improving his financial condition. Henry was left behind in the care of his paternal grandfather, who died several months later, leaving the 10-year old boy, stranded and forced to rely upon his own resources. (In those times, when families were separated, individual members had limited means of locating one another.)

Horace Fletcher (1849-1919): "The Great Masticator.".

Horace Fletcher (1849-1919), nicknamed "The Great Masticator," was a well known and influential food and health faddist in early 20th century North America. As a man of virtually limitless energy, Fletcher became a world traveler, millionaire businessman, amateur painter, speaker, and author, and self-taught nutritionist who perfected and fanatically distributed his doctrine of "Fletcherism," for 24 years (from 1895 to 1919). This dogma taught that all food must be deliberately masticated and not swallowed until it turned to liquid. Fletcher believed that prolonged chewing precluded overeating, led to better systemic and dental health, helped to reduce food intake, and consequently, conserved money. People were cautioned not to eat except when they were "good and hungry," and to avoid dining when they were angry or worried. They were also told that they could eat any food that they wanted, as long as they chewed it until the "food swallowed itself." This article explores the development of Fletchrism during the early 1900s.

Outreach at Indiana University School of Dentistry: giving back to the community.

This article describes the development, scope, and nature of numerous outreach programs initiated at I.U.S.D. It also addresses their intended impact at local, state, and national levels.

Cuticular hydrocarbons ofAedes hendersoni cockerell andA. triseriatus (SAY).

Field-caught adult male and femaleAedes hendersoni are difficult to distinguish from the sibling speciesA. triseriatus. We found that mosquitoes from the same sex of the sibling species can not be readily separated either by unique cuticular hydrocarbon components or by differences in percent composition of those components. Multivariate analysis of the cuticular hydrocarbon data does not provide good separation. Cuticular hydrocarbons were identified using gas chromatography electron-impact mass spectrometry and gas chromatography chemical-ionization mass spectrometry. Flame-ionization capillary gas chromatography was used for quantitative analysis of individual mosquitoes. Sixty-four hydrocarbons with chain lengths from C16 to greater than C46 were common to both species. Identified hydrocarbon components weren-alkanes, monomethylalkanes, dimethylalkanes, trimethylalkanes, and alkenes.