Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5a (STAT5a) represses mitochondrial gene expression through direct binding to mitochondrial DNA.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins are latent cytoplasmic transcription factors essential for cytokine signaling. Our previous study showed that interleukin-3 (IL-3) induced STAT5 translocation to mitochondria and binding to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in vitro. In this report, we further demonstrated in vivo binding of endogenous STAT5a to mtDNA transcriptional control region and reduced gene expression from all three mtDNA promoters after IL-3 stimulation. To specifically define the function of mitochondrial STAT5a, we generated mitochondrial-targeting wild-type and mutant STAT5a proteins. Compared with non-targeting STAT5a, mitochondrial-targeting wild-type STAT5a significantly reduced mitochondrial gene expression in transfected HEK293 cells. The level of attenuation was amplified in cells expressing constitutively active STAT5a, but abrogated in cells expressing DNA-binding-defective STAT5a. STAT5a-mediated repression of mtDNA expression also positively correlated with STAT5a binding to the E2 subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC-E2), both a gate-keeping metabolic enzyme and a component of mtDNA nucleoid in mitochondrial matrix. Metabolic shift away from mitochondrial respiration is known in many cytokine-stimulated cells and cancer cells. STAT5a-mediated repression of mitochondrial gene expression and its interaction with PDC-E2 may provide important insights into its underlying mechanisms.

Lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) interacts with CR6-interacting factor 1 (CRIF1) in mitochondria to repress oxidative phosphorylation.

BACKGROUND: Many cancer cells exhibit reduced mitochondrial respiration as part of metabolic reprogramming to support tumor growth. Mitochondrial localization of several protein tyrosine kinases is linked to this characteristic metabolic shift in solid tumors, but remains largely unknown in blood cancer. Lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) is a key T-cell kinase and widely implicated in blood malignancies. The purpose of our study is to determine whether and how Lck contributes to metabolic shift in T-cell leukemia through mitochondrial localization. METHODS: We compared the human leukemic T-cell line Jurkat with its Lck-deficient derivative Jcam cell line. Differences in mitochondrial respiration were measured by the levels of mitochondrial membrane potential, oxygen consumption, and mitochondrial superoxide. Detailed mitochondrial structure was visualized by transmission electron microscopy. Lck localization was evaluated by subcellular fractionation and confocal microscopy. Proteomic analysis was performed to identify proteins co-precipitated with Lck in leukemic T-cells. Protein interaction was validated by biochemical co-precipitation and confocal microscopy, followed by in situ proximity ligation assay microscopy to confirm close-range (<16 nm) interaction. RESULTS: Jurkat cells have abnormal mitochondrial structure and reduced levels of mitochondrial respiration, which is associated with the presence of mitochondrial Lck and lower levels of mitochondrion-encoded electron transport chain proteins. Proteomics identified CR6-interacting factor 1 (CRIF1) as the novel Lck-interacting protein. Lck association with CRIF1 in Jurkat mitochondria was confirmed biochemically and by microscopy, but did not lead to CRIF1 tyrosine phosphorylation. Consistent with the role of CRIF1 in functional mitoribosome, shRNA-mediated silencing of CRIF1 in Jcam resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction similar to that observed in Jurkat. Reduced interaction between CRIF1 and Tid1, another key component of intramitochondrial translational machinery, in Jurkat further supports the role of mitochondrial Lck as a negative regulator of CRIF1 through competitive binding. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report demonstrating the role of mitochondrial Lck in metabolic reprogramming of leukemic cells. Mechanistically, it is distinct from other reported mitochondrial protein tyrosine kinases. In a kinase-independent manner, mitochondrial Lck interferes with mitochondrial translational machinery through competitive binding to CRIF1. These findings may reveal novel approaches in cancer therapy by targeting cancer cell metabolism.

Nuclear lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase and its interaction with CR6-interacting factor 1 promote the survival of human leukemic T cells.

Overexpression and hyperactivation of lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) have been associated with leukemia development. We previously showed that, other than its known function as a cytoplasmic signal transducer, Lck also acts as a nuclear transcription factor in mouse leukemic cells. In the present study, we demonstrated the presence of nuclear Lck in human leukemic T cells and in primary cells. We further established a positive correlation between Lck nuclear localization and its kinase activity. Proteomic analysis identified CR6-interacting factor 1 (CRIF1) as one of the Lck-interacting proteins. CRIF1 and Lck association in the nucleus was confirmed both by immunofluorescence microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation in human leukemic T cells. Close-range interaction between Lck and CRIF1 was validated by in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA). Consistent with the role of nuclear CRIF1 as a tumor suppressor, CRIF1 silencing promotes leukemic T cell survival in the absence of growth factors. This protective effect can be recapitulated by endogenous Lck or reconstituted Lck in leukemic T cells. All together, our results support a novel function of nuclear Lck in promoting human leukemic T cell survival through interaction with a tumor suppressor. It has important implications in defining a paradigm shift of non-canonical protein tyrosine kinase signaling.

Engagement of T-cell antigen receptor and CD4/CD8 co-receptors induces prolonged STAT activation through autocrine/paracrine stimulation in human primary T cells.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins are key signaling molecules in response to cytokines and in regulating T cell biology. However, there are contradicting reports on whether STAT is involved in T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling. To better define the role of STAT in TCR signaling, we activated the CD4/CD8-associated Lck kinase by co-crosslinking TCR and CD4/CD8 co-receptors in human peripheral blood T cells. Sequential STAT1, STAT3 and STAT5 activation was observed 1 h after TCR stimulation suggesting that STAT proteins are not the immediate targets in the TCR complex. We further identified interferon-γ as the key cytokine in STAT1 activation upon TCR engagement. In contrast to transient STAT activation in cytokine response, this autocrine/paracrine-induced STAT activation was sustained. It correlated with the absence of two suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins, SOCS3 and cytokine-inducible SH2 containing protein that are negative feedback regulators of STAT signaling. Moreover, enforced expression of SOCS3 inhibited tyrosine phosphorylation of zeta-associated protein kinase of 70 kD in TCR-stimulated human Jurkat T cells. This is the first report demonstrating delayed and prolonged STAT activation coordinated with the loss of SOCS expression in human primary T cells after co-crosslinking of TCR and CD4/CD8 co-receptors.

Nuclear localization of lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) and its role in regulating LIM domain only 2 (Lmo2) gene.

LIM domain only protein 2 (Lmo2) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the development of T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). A previous report established a link between Lmo2 expression and the nuclear presence of oncogenic Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), a non-receptor protein tyrosine kinase. The oncogenic JAK2 kinase phosphorylates histone H3 on Tyr 41 that leads to the relief of Lmo2 promoter repression and subsequent gene expression. Similar to JAK2, constitutive activation of lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) has been implicated in lymphoid malignancies. However, it is not known whether oncogenic Lck regulates Lmo2 expression through a similar mechanism. We show here that Lmo2 expression is significantly elevated in T cell leukemia LSTRA overexpressing active Lck kinase and in HEK 293 cells expressing oncogenic Y505FLck kinase. Nuclear localization of active Lck kinase was confirmed in both Lck-transformed cells by subcellular fractionation and immunofluorescence microscopy. More importantly, in contrast to oncogenic JAK2, oncogenic Lck kinase does not result in significant increase in histone H3 phosphorylation on Tyr 41. Instead, chromatin immunoprecipitation experiment shows that oncogenic Y505FLck kinase binds to the Lmo2 promoter in vivo. This result raises the possibility that oncogenic Lck may activate Lmo2 promoter through direct interaction.

Nuclear localization of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex-E2 (PDC-E2), a mitochondrial enzyme, and its role in signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5)-dependent gene transcription.

STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) proteins play a critical role in cellular response to a wide variety of cytokines and growth factors by regulating specific nuclear genes. STAT-dependent gene transcription can be finely tuned through the association with co-factors in the nucleus. We showed previously that STAT5 (including 5a and 5b) specifically interacts with a mitochondrial enzyme PDC-E2 (E2 subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) in both leukemic T cells and cytokine-stimulated cells. However, the functional significance of this novel association remains largely unknown. Here we report that PDC-E2 may function as a co-activator in STAT5-dependent nuclear gene expression. Subcellular fractionation analysis revealed that a substantial amount of PDC-E2 was constitutively present in the nucleus of BaF3, an interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent cell line. IL-3-induced tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT5 associated with nuclear PDC-E2 in co-immunoprecipitation analysis. These findings were confirmed by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy showing constant nuclear localization of PDC-E2 and its co-localization with STAT5 after IL-3 stimulation. Similar to mitochondrial PDC-E2, nuclear PDC-E2 was lipoylated and associated with PDC-E1. Overexpression of PDC-E2 in BaF3 cells augmented IL-3-induced STAT5 activity as measured by reporter assay with consensus STAT5-binding sites. Consistent with the reporter data, PDC-E2 overexpression in BaF3 cells led to elevated mRNA levels of endogenous SOCS3 (suppressor of cytokine signaling 3) gene, a known STAT5 target. We further identified two functional STAT5-binding sites in the SOCS3 gene promoter important for its IL-3-inducibility. The observation that both cis-acting elements were essential to detect the stimulatory effect by PDC-E2 strongly supports the role of PDC-E2 in up-regulating the transactivating ability of STAT5. All together, our results reveal a novel function of PDC-E2 in the nucleus. It also raises the possibility of nuclear-mitochondrial crosstalk through the interaction between STAT5 and PDC-E2.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 interacts with oncogenic lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase.

Lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase (Lck) plays a key role in T cell signal transduction and is tightly regulated by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Lck can function as an oncoprotein when overexpressed or constantly activated by mutations. Our previous studies showed that Lck-induced cellular transformation could be suppressed by enforced expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), a SOCS family member involved in the negative feedback control of cytokine signaling. We observed attenuated Lck kinase activity in SOCS1-expressing cells, suggesting an important role of SOCS in regulating Lck functions. It remains largely unknown whether and how SOCS proteins interact with the oncogenic Lck kinase. Here, we report that among four SOCS family proteins, SOCS1, SOCS2, SOCS3 and CIS (cytokine-inducible SH2 domain containing protein), SOCS1 has the highest affinity in binding to the oncogenic Lck kinase. We identified the positive regulatory phosphotyrosine 394 residue in the kinase domain as the key interacting determinant in Lck. Additionally, the Lck kinase domain alone is sufficient to bind SOCS1. While the SH2 domain in SOCS1 is important in its association with the oncogenic Lck kinase, other functional domains may also contribute to overall binding affinity. These findings provide important mechanistic insights into the role of SOCS proteins as tumor suppressors in cells transformed by oncogenic protein tyrosine kinases.

Metabolic response to endotoxin in vivo in the conscious mouse: role of interleukin-6.

Inflammation and insulin resistance are characteristics of endotoxemia. Although the role of interleukin (IL)-6 in insulin-resistant states has been characterized, little is known of its role in the metabolic response to inflammation. To study the role of IL-6, conscious chronically catheterized mice were used. Five days before being studied, catheters were implanted in the carotid artery and jugular vein. After a 5-hour fast, Escherichia coli (250 µg per mouse) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was injected in IL-6⁻/⁻ (KO, n = 13) and IL-6+/+ (WT, n = 10) littermates. The IL-6 response to LPS was simulated in an additional group of KO mice (KO + IL-6, n = 10). Interleukin-6 increased in WT (15 ± 0.7 ng/mL) 4 hours after LPS and was undetectable in KO. Interleukin-6 replacement in the KO restored circulating IL-6 to levels observed in the WT group (14 ± 0.3 ng/mL). Tumor necrosis factor-α increased more rapidly in WT than in both KO and KO + IL-6 mice. The KO mice exhibited a more profound glucose excursion 30 minutes after LPS injection and no apparent hypoglycemia at 4 hours (95 ± 5 vs 70 ± 8 mg/dL, KO vs WT), despite having a blunted glucagon and epinephrine response. Glucose levels in KO + IL-6 mice, while decreased (93 ± 4 mg/dL) at 4 hours, remained higher than those in WT mice. In summary, the absence of IL-6 protected against LPS-induced hypoglycemia. Acute restoration of the IL-6 response to LPS did not potentiate hypoglycemia but partially restored the glucagon response. Thus, although IL-6 promotes glucose intolerance in insulin-resistant states, IL-6 promotes hypoglycemia during acute inflammation.

Mitochondrial translocation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) in leukemic T cells and cytokine-stimulated cells.

Signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) were first identified as key signaling molecules in response to cytokines. Constitutive STAT activation also has been widely implicated in oncogenesis. We analyzed STAT5-associated proteins in a leukemic T cell line LSTRA, which exhibits constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of STAT5. A cellular protein was found to specifically interact with STAT5 in LSTRA cells by co-immunoprecipitation. Sequencing analysis and subsequent immunoblotting confirmed the identity of this STAT5-associated protein as the E2 component of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC-E2). Consistent with this interaction, both subcellular fractionation and immunofluorescence microscopy revealed mitochondrial localization of STAT5 in LSTRA cells. Mitochondrial localization of tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT5 also occurred in cytokine-stimulated cells. A time course experiment further demonstrated the transient kinetics of STAT5 mitochondrial translocation after cytokine stimulation. In contrast, cytokine-induced STAT1 and STAT3 activation did not result in their translocation into mitochondria. Furthermore, we showed that mitochondrial STAT5 bound to the D-loop regulatory region of mitochondrial DNA in vitro. It suggests a potential role of STAT5 in regulating the mitochondrial genome. Proliferative metabolism toward aerobic glycolysis is well known in cancer cells as the Warburg effect and is also observed in cytokine-stimulated cells. Our novel findings of cytokine-induced STAT5 translocation into mitochondria and its link to oncogenesis provide important insights into the underlying mechanisms of this characteristic metabolic shift.

Advantages of dynamic "closed loop" stable isotope flux phenotyping over static "open loop" clamps in detecting silent genetic and dietary phenotypes.

In vivo insulin sensitivity can be assessed using "open loop" clamp or "closed loop" methods. Open loop clamp methods are static, and fix plasma glucose independently from plasma insulin. Closed loop methods are dynamic, and assess glucose disposal in response to a stable isotope labeled glucose tolerance test. Using PPARalpha(-/-) mice, open and closed loop assessments of insulin sensitivity/glucose disposal were compared. Indirect calorimetry done for the assessment of diurnal substrate utilization/metabolic flexibility showed that chow fed PPARalpha(-/-) mice had increased glucose utilization during the light (starved) cycle. Euglycemic clamps showed no differences in insulin stimulated glucose disposal, whether for chow or high fat diets, but did show differences in basal glucose clearance for chow fed PPARalpha(-/-) versus SV129J-wt mice. In contrast, the dynamic stable isotope labeled glucose tolerance tests reveal enhanced glucose disposal for PPARalpha(-/-) versus SV129J-wt, for chow and high fat diets. Area under the curve for plasma labeled and unlabeled glucose for PPARalpha(-/-) was approximately 1.7-fold lower, P < 0.01 during the stable isotope labeled glucose tolerance test for both diets. Area under the curve for plasma insulin was 5-fold less for the chow fed SV129J-wt (P < 0.01) but showed no difference on a high fat diet (0.30 +/- 0.1 for SV129J-wt vs. 0.13 +/- 0.10 for PPARalpha(-/-), P = 0.28). This study demonstrates that dynamic stable isotope labeled glucose tolerance test can assess "silent" metabolic phenotypes, not detectable by the static, "open loop", euglycemic or hyperglycemic clamps. Both open loop and closed loop methods may describe different aspects of metabolic inflexibility and insulin sensitivity.

Enforced SOCS1 and SOCS3 expression attenuates Lck-mediated cellular transformation.

Lck is an Src family protein tyrosine kinase with predominant T cell expression. Aberrant expression or activation of Lck kinase has been reported in both lymphoid and non-lymphoid malignancies. We showed previously that the signal transduction pathway involving Janus kinase (JAK) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) is constitutively activated and contributes to Lck-mediated oncogenesis. Under normal physiological conditions, active STAT proteins induce the expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family proteins to inhibit further JAK/STAT signaling. It is not fully understood whether and how SOCS-mediated negative feedback control is dysregulated in Lck-transformed cells. Here we report that two SOCS family members, SOCS1 and SOCS3, are not expressed in Lck-transformed LSTRA leukemia. While SOCS1 gene is silenced by DNA hypermethylation, loss of SOCS3 expression is through a mechanism independent of epigenetic silencing by DNA methylation. Furthermore, ectopic expression of SOCS1 or SOCS3 leads to reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in Lck-transformed cells. This is consistent with the attenuation of Lck kinase activity by exogenous SOCS1 or SOCS3 expression. Downstream STAT5 activity is also inhibited as shown by reduced STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation and in vitro DNA binding. All together, our data highlight the importance of silencing multiple SOCS genes in tumorigenesis and support the roles of SOCS1 and SOCS3 as tumor suppressors toward oncogenic Lck kinase.

Impact of portal glucose delivery on glucose metabolism in conscious, unrestrained mice.

Previous studies in mice suggest that portal venous infusion of glucose at a low rate paradoxically causes hypoglycemia; this does not occur in dogs, rats, and humans. A possible explanation is that fasting status in the mouse studies may have altered the response. We sought to determine whether the response to portal glucose delivery in the mouse was similar to that seen in other species and whether it was dependent on fasting status. Studies were performed on chronically catheterized conscious mice. Catheters were placed into the portal and jugular veins and carotid artery 5 days before study. After a 5- or 16-h fast, glucose was infused into either the portal (PO) or the jugular vein (JU) for 6 h at 25 microg.g(-1).min(-1). [3-(3)H]glucose was infused into the JU to measure glucose turnover. In 5-h-fasted mice, PO and JU exhibited similar increases in arterial blood glucose from 155 +/- 11 to 173 +/- 19 and 147 +/- 8 to 173 +/- 10 mg/dl, respectively. Endogenous glucose production decreased and arterial insulin increased to the same extent in both PO and JU. A similar response was observed in 16-h-fasted mice; however, the proportion of hepatic glycogen synthesis occurring by the indirect pathway was increased by fasting. In summary, portal glucose delivery in the mouse did not cause hypoglycemia even when the duration of the fast was extended. The explanation of the differing response from previous reports in the mouse is unclear.

Evaluation of antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of Strobilanthes cusia leaf extract in male mice and rats.

The leaf of Strobilanthes cusia (Acanthaceae), popularly known as Da-Ching-Yeh, has been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is used for influenza, epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis, encephalitis B, viral pneumonia and mumps. It is also used to treat sore throat, aphthae and inflammatory diseases with redness of skin, etc. In this study, we evaluated the antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of methanol extract of Strobilanthes cusia leaf. The results showed that the extract significantly inhibited the writhing responses of mice and decreased the licking time on both the early and late phases of the formalin test in a dose-dependent manner. It also reduced the paw edema induced by carrageenan in rats. In addition, it potently attenuated pyrexia induced by lipopolysaccharide.