Is optimistic bias influenced by control or delay?

Optimistic bias is a commonly observed but poorly explained phenomenon. Our aim was to determine whether optimistic bias varied according to the nature of the event. Two event characteristics were explored: control and delay. A sample of 100 participants aged 18-30 years was randomly selected from the local residential telephone directory. Respondents were interviewed over the telephone. The highly structured interview schedule assessed respondents' perceptions of their own risk, and the risk of an average person of their age and sex for experiencing four negative life events: developing skin cancer, being involved in a serious car accident as the driver, being involved in a serious car accident as a passenger and having to wear a hearing aid. It also assessed respondents' perceptions of control and delay for each event. Data analysis using a repeated-measures MANOVA showed that optimistic bias occurred for all four events. Optimistic bias was significantly greater for the two events high in control (skin cancer and accident as the driver) than for those low in control (accident as a passenger and hearing aid). Delay was not related to the magnitude of optimistic bias. These findings have implications for health promotion campaigns and self-protective behaviors.

Unrealistic optimism and the Health Belief Model.

Why do people fail to engage in positive behaviors which will promote their health and well-being? Researchers addressing this question adopt primarily one of two perspectives, drawing either on theories of health behavior, such as the Health Belief Model (HBM), or on theories of risk perception, such as unrealistic optimism. To overcome this compartmentalization, two studies of cancer screening behavior assessed the extent to which unrealistic optimism occurred in relation to each of the elements of the HBM: severity and curability of cancer and the benefits of, and barriers to, having a screening test. Data were collected using telephone interviews, dialing numbers randomly selected from the telephone directory. In the first study 164 women aged 50 to 70 years responded to questions about breast cancer and screening mammography, while in the second study 200 men aged 45 to 60 years responded to questions about prostate cancer and screening using the prostate specific antigen test. Women had an optimistic bias in relation to breast cancer risk and severity and barriers to having a screening mammogram but not in relation to the benefits of screening. For prostate cancer, there was an optimistic bias for all HBM variables: risk and severity of prostate cancer and barriers to and benefits of screening. It was concluded that unrealistic optimism is broader than perceived risk, being evident for all elements of the HBM.

Breast self-examination training: a brief review.

A review of the literature on breast self-examination training indicated that any training in breast self-examination improves compliance, confidence, and proficiency; the evidence is unclear about the relative effectiveness of group or individual training; practice on breast models and on the woman's own breasts should be included in breast self-examination training; additional training sessions improve compliance and proficiency; reminders increase compliance, but the effect ceases when the reminders cease; and it is particularly important for older women to search their breasts slowly and thoroughly. Several other new approaches to breast self-examination training are discussed.

Colorectal cancer: a survey of community beliefs and behaviours in Victoria.

OBJECTIVE: To document self-reported beliefs and behaviours in relation to colorectal cancer (CRC) and screening for CRC. DATA COLLECTION: A stratified random sample was selected from the telephone directory, and structured telephone interviews were conducted using a computer-assisted telephone interviewing system. PARTICIPANTS: 500 men and 500 women aged 40-60 years, 70% randomly selected from the Melbourne metropolitan area and 30% from rural Victoria. The response rate to the initial telephone invitation of 1569 eligible people was 63.7%. OUTCOME MEASURES: Awareness of and experience with CRC; knowledge of CRC risk, risk reduction behaviour, and screening tests for CRC; willingness to have screening tests for CRC; and test preferences. RESULTS: The people surveyed were relatively unaware of their personal risk of CRC, despite 61% (95% CI, 57%-65%) knowing someone who had CRC. Although 51% (95% CI, 48%-54%) could not name any CRC screening test, 68% (95% CI, 65%-71%) knew of the value of a high fibre diet in prevention. However, 67% (95% CI, 64%-70%) thought it was unlikely they would have a screening test for CRC in the next two years, but 64% (95% CI, 61%-67%) considered that some person could influence their decision to have a test, 60% (95% CI, 56%-64%) stating that they would be influenced by a doctor. Faecal occult blood testing and sigmoidoscopy were equally acceptable. In general, women were more knowledgeable than men. There were no systematic age or urban/rural differences. CONCLUSIONS: There is a variable understanding of CRC in the community. Although prevention is well understood, this is not true of screening. General practitioners are likely to be influential in the uptake of any screening programs.

Community (mis)understanding of colorectal cancer treatment.

BACKGROUND: A study was undertaken to assess community understanding of colorectal cancer symptoms and colorectal cancer treatment. METHODS: A computer-assisted telephone survey was undertaken to interview 1000 men and women aged 40-60 years. RESULTS: Overall there was a considerable lack of information in the community about colorectal cancer symptoms and treatment. Men were less knowledgeable than women, and 28% of men were unable to name any symptoms of bowel cancer. Although surgery was mentioned by 53% of the sample, a third could not name any treatments. Most responses to questions about the effects of treatment related to chemotherapy-related disturbances and the possibility of having a colostomy bag postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: There is inaccurate information in the community about colorectal cancer symptoms and treatment. This may inhibit involvement in screening programmes or delay presentation for therapy, as a result of undue concern about the prospects of treatment.

Older women's illness representations of cancer: a qualitative study.

This paper investigates the role of illness representations in older women's utilization of cancer screening. Older women's own beliefs, or illness representations, of cancer and cancer screening in relation to breast cancer and cervical cancer were explored using relatively unstructured, face-to-face interviews. Twenty women aged between 45 and 70 were interviewed, half of whom were regular screeners and half under-screeners. A comparison of the illness representations of the screeners with the under-screeners indicates some differences regarding cancer in general, and substantial differences regarding the treatment and cure of cancer. The screeners expressed less concern about cancer and gave more positive examples of the successful treatment of cancer. The under-screeners were more likely to express cynicism about the medical profession, to indicate that a person would have symptoms if they had cancer, that they would not want most of the treatment available for cancer, that screening is more important for younger women and that the use of alternative therapies negates the need for cancer screening. Few differences emerged between the two groups regarding the causes of cancer.

Understanding suicide among indigenous adolescents: a review using the PRECEDE model.

AIM: To use the available literature to identify the causes of suicide among indigenous adolescents. METHOD: The PRECEDE model provided a framework to organize the material and identify the areas where relatively little research had been reported. RESULTS: The epidemiological diagnosis showed that suicide was greater in indigenous than non-indigenous populations and particularly high among adolescent males. Environments of native persons are characterized by remoteness, poverty, cultural displacement, and family disintegration. The educational and organizational diagnosis identified predisposing factors reflecting the social environments previously identified, the enabling factors of televised suicides, and firearm and alcohol availability, in conjunction with an absence of positive expectations. Finally the administrative and policy diagnosis identified a piecemeal, short term perspective, often lacking cultural sensitivity. Although there was more literature from the United States than from Canada, Australia or New Zealand, the pictures emerging were consistent, with problems being identified across continents. Literature was more abundant in relation to the epidemiological, environmental, and educational/ organizational diagnoses than in relation to policy and administration. CONCLUSION: The increased suicide rates among indigenous adolescents were not a product of their native origins, but of the social milieu in which these people generally found themselves.

Skin type and optimistic bias in relation to the sun protection and suntanning behaviors of young adults.

The study examined the roles of general and personal beliefs and skin type in relation to suntanning and sun protection, by assessing various perceptions of risk of skin cancer both for the self and for the average person. A sample of 355 people aged 16 to 25 years was selected randomly from the telephone directory of a coastal provincial city. Highly structured interviews were conducted over the telephone. The findings were presented in relation to three research questions. First, skin type, classified as burn only, burn then tan, or tan without burning, influenced both general and personal beliefs. Compared to the tan-only group, the burn-only group perceived earlier age at onset, greater number of years of life lost, and greater severity of skin cancer, for both the average person and the self, and greater susceptibility to skin cancer for the average person. Second, differences were found between personally relevant and population-relevant beliefs on susceptibility to skin cancer, time of onset, and years of life lost due to skin cancer but not for perceptions of severity and curability. Finally, skin cancer beliefs were poor correlates of tanning and protecting behaviors. The factor explaining the greatest proportion of variance in both behaviors was skin type.

Factors associated with screening mammography and breast self-examination intentions.

The factors associated with the use of two methods for the early detection of breast cancer were assessed using a theoretical framework derived from the theory of reasoned action and the Health Belief Model. Telephone interviews were conducted with 170 women aged between 50 and 70 years, randomly selected from the telephone directory of a provincial city in Victoria, Australia. The model explained 47% of the variance in intentions to have a mammogram and 22% of the variance in intentions to practise breast self-examination (BSE). The data supported the prediction that different variables would be associated with each method of early detection of breast cancer. Intentions to have a mammogram were associated with perceived susceptibility to breast cancer, knowing a woman who has had a mammogram, previous mammography history and Pap test history. Intentions to do BSE were associated with self efficacy, knowledge of breast cancer issues, concern about getting breast cancer and employment status. Both screening methods were associated with prior behaviour and concern about getting breast cancer.

Causal attributions, coping strategies, and adjustment to breast cancer.

In this retrospective questionnaire study of a convenience sample of 244 Australian women, type of causal attributions and their impact on coping strategies adopted by women with breast cancer were studied in relation to women's adjustment to their illness. Although 70% of the women made attributions about their cancer's origins, these women were not significantly better adjusted than women who had not make an attribution. Of those women who had made a causal attribution, type of attribution, whether controllable or uncontrollable (based on perceptions as to the controllability/uncontrollability of the cause of the disease), determined the extent to which exhibited information-seeking behavior. In the present study, women who perceived the cause of their cancer as emanating from uncontrollable circumstances were more active in seeking information about breast cancer than women who perceived the cause of their cancer as emanating from controllable circumstances. Different types of coping strategies adopted by women were associated with adjustment. Women who rated their adjustment as excellent displayed lower levels of helplessness, made fewer changes to their social behavior, were more anxiously preoccupied with their illness, sought more alternatives to medical therapy, and exhibited more information-seeking behavior than did their less-well-adjusted counterparts. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Cloning and expression of the beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase gene from Streptococcus pneumoniae. Generation of truncated enzymes with modified aglycon specificity.

The gene encoding a beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase from Streptococcus pneumoniae has been obtained by screening an expression library for beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase activity. Clones of different nucleotide sizes each having arylglycoside activity were obtained, and DNA sequencing revealed a gene of 3933 base pairs possessing typical bacterial transcription initiation and termination sequences and terminating in an ochre stop codon. Computer analysis of the translated protein of 1311 amino acids (144,210 Da) identified a tandem repeat within which lies a sequence homologous with six other hexosaminidase gene products from a wide variety of species ranging from bacteria to humans. Also found were an amino-terminal putative secretion signal peptide and a carboxyl-terminal cell sorting/anchorage motif typically found in over 20 other Gram-positive surface proteins. The expression of an almost complete DNA clone in Escherichia coli produced a functional and authentic beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase with aglycon specificity identical to the wild-type enzyme. However, enzymes produced from truncated DNA clones show more restricted aglycon specificity and are unable to hydrolyze terminal beta 1-2GlcNAc residues from N-glycans containing a bisecting N-acetylglucosamine. The availability of these clones allows structural analyses to be made of catalytic and oligosaccharide recognition protein domains that enhance functional activity.

Suntanning and sun protection: a review of the psychological literature.

Excessive sun exposure has been linked to skin cancer and to premature aging, drying and wrinkling of the skin, predominantly among Caucasians. This review examines the psychological literature on suntanning and sun protection behaviours among Caucasians. The research is examined in relation to: methods of study; attitude and normative beliefs towards suntanning and sun protection; differences in suntanning and sun protection knowledge and behaviour as a function of age and sun protection; differences to change sun related behaviours. A consistent finding across studies is that many people show a high level of knowledge of the dangers of excessive sun exposure and the need for sun protection, however, this knowledge often does not transfer into behaviour, with many people, particularly adolescents, still desiring and actively seeking a suntan. The implications of these findings for intervention studies are discussed.

Partial nucleotide sequence of poplar mosaic virus RNA confirms its classification as a carlavirus.

The nucleotide sequence of the 3'-proximal 1328 nucleotides of poplar mosaic virus (PMV) was determined and shown to contain two large open reading frames (ORFs). The ORF nearer to the 3' terminus of the RNA is capable of encoding a polypeptide of 14K with a 'zinc-finger' motif, and is homologous to sequences in corresponding positions in five other carlaviruses. The other ORF encodes a protein of 36K which includes two sequences of amino acids identified in tryptic digests as virion capsid protein, and has amino acid sequences in common with both carlaviruses and potexviruses.

Perceived sources of stress among student nurses.

Questionnaire data was collected from a sample of 306 student nurses from three institutions (university, college of advanced education and hospital) during the second week of the first year of their course, and from 189 students from two of the institutions (university and CAE) at the conclusion of their first year of education. The main sources of stress on both occasions were essentially the same for women and men, and for students from the different institutions. These concerns focussed on study-related issues, the emotional demands of nursing, the use of technical equipment, interpersonal interaction, and lack of time for family and personal pursuits. It was suggested that these concerns could be reduced through the introduction of education in study skills, the provision of the opportunity to gain hands-on experience with technical equipment, and the development of social skills.

Demographic characteristics and knowledge of BSE of women electing to attend a BSE training program in Victoria, Australia.

Participants in the Mammacheck breast self-examination (BSE) training program were surveyed to assess the characteristics of women choosing to attend BSE training sessions, as well as to assess the factors that related to their BSE practice prior to attending the session. In all, 5,673 women completed questionnaires. In comparison with the general population, women who attended Mammacheck tended to be younger, married, and more highly educated, but did not differ in relation to prior experience of breast problems. Previous BSE practice related predominantly to the amount of knowledge about BSE the women reported that they had acquired before attending a training session. The findings highlight the importance of education and raised the important question of how to teach women with lower education levels and little or no knowledge about BSE. Recommendations are made.

Training versus nontraining of mothers as home reading tutors.

The effectiveness of training mothers as home reading tutors was assessed using a sample of 42 mother-child pairs. The children were aged 8 to 9 yr. Analyses showed that the amount of time parents spent listening to a child read at home was positively related to both reading accuracy and comprehension scores. A short group-program training mothers as home reading tutors achieved the anticipated changes in mothers' behaviours: delayed intervention, increased use of meaning and contextual cues rather than direct word prompts, and greater use of praise. Children's reading accuracy was marginally improved and reading comprehension was significantly increased as a result of training the mothers as home reading tutors.

Proteinuria in an Otago diabetic population.

A prospective examination was conducted of a five man group practice in Mosgiel, Otago. The incidence of diabetes was ascertained, and the frequency of proteinuria in that diabetic population. Thirteen percent of those examined showed proteinuria. Proteinuria appeared best related to the presence of retinopathy, and the known duration of the diabetes.

High frequency of Ina antigen among Iranians and Arabs.

The frequency of the Ina antigen was determined in population samples from Thailand and Indonesia as well as in Arabs, Chinese, Iranians and Parsis. It was found to be polymorphic in Arabs (11.8%) and Iranians (10.6%) while it was absent in the other population groups.