Photobiomodulation Treatment with a Home-Use Device for COVID-19: A Randomized Controlled Trial for Efficacy and Safety.

Background: Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) using devices to deliver red and/or near-infrared light to tissues has shown promising effects in clinical settings for respiratory diseases, including potential benefits in managing symptoms associated with COVID-19. Objective: To determine if at-home self-administered PBMT for patients with COVID-19 is safe and effective. Methods: This was a randomized controlled trial (RCT) carried out at home during the COVID-19 pandemic (September 2020 to August 2021). The treatment group self-administered the Vielight RX Plus PBMT device (635 nm intranasal and 810 nm chest LEDs) and were monitored remotely. Eligible patients scored 4-7 (out of 7) for severity on the Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS-44). Patients were randomized equally to Control group receiving standard-of-care (SOC) only or Treatment group receiving SOC plus PBMT. The device was used for 20 min 2X/day for 5 days and, subsequently, once daily for 30 days. The primary end-point was time-to-recovery (days) based on WURSS-44 question 1, "How sick do you feel today?". Subgroup analysis was performed, and Kaplan-Meier and Cox Proportional Hazards analysis were employed. Results: One hundred and ninety-nine eligible patients (18-65 years old) were divided into two subgroups as follows: 136 patients with 0-7 days of symptoms at baseline and 63 patients with 8-12 days of symptoms. Those with 0-7 days of symptoms at baseline recovered significantly faster with PBMT. The median for Treatment group was 18 days [95% confidence interval (CI), 13-20] versus the Control group 21 days (95% CI, 15-28), p = 0.050. The treatment:control hazard ratio was 1.495 (95% CI, 0.996-2.243), p = 0.054. Patients with symptom duration ≥7 days did not show any significant improvement. No deaths or severe adverse events (SAEs) occurred in the Treatment group, whereas there was 1 death and 3 SAEs requiring hospitalization in the Control group. Conclusions: Patients with ≤7 days of COVID-19 symptoms recovered significantly faster with PBMT compared to SOC. Beyond 7 days, PBMT showed no superiority over SOC. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04418505.

Are Instagram Gym Advertisements Working Out? An Experimental Study of Model Body-Size and Slogan-Type.

Previous health communication research has demonstrated the negative psychological and health effects of depicting thin-sized models in mass media advertisements including on social media sites such as Instagram. However, gym advertisements are one common source for the presentation of lean and thin-sized models on Instagram. Therefore, the current study guided by social comparison theory and signaling theory aimed to experimentally examine the effect of thin-sized models relative to plus-sized models as well as slogan-type (health and wellness versus physique-based) on women's appearance comparison, body satisfaction, perceived gym fit, and intentions to join the gym. A sample of 217 undergraduate students who identified as women were randomly assigned to one of four Instagram gym advertisement conditions varying in model body-size and slogan-type. Appearance comparisons, perceived gym fit, and intentions to join the gym were measured post advertisement exposure and body satisfaction was measured pre-and-post advertisement exposure. As expected, exposure to Instagram gym advertisements featuring thin-sized models resulted in greater appearance comparisons and lower body satisfaction than exposure to Instagram gym advertisements featuring plus-sized models. Moreover, the combination of plus-sized models with health and wellness slogans in Instagram gym advertisements resulted in greater gym fit perceptions although there was no effect of model body-size and slogan-type on intentions to join the gym. This study supports social comparison theory, signaling theory, and practically the findings indicate that Instagram gym advertisements that depict plus-sized models (versus thin) with health-and-wellness slogans (versus physique) generate fewer body image concerns and lead to greater gym fit perceptions.

Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of nomlabofusp (CTI-1601) in Friedreich's ataxia.

OBJECTIVE: Current treatments for Friedreich's ataxia, a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by decreased intramitochondrial frataxin, do not address low frataxin concentrations. Nomlabofusp (previously CTI-1601) is a frataxin replacement therapy with a unique mechanism of action that directly addresses this underlying frataxin deficiency. Phase 1 studies assessed the safety, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic profiles of subcutaneously administered nomlabofusp in adults with Friedreich's ataxia. METHODS: Patients were enrolled in two Phase 1, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. The single ascending-dose (SAD) study (NCT04176991) evaluated single doses of nomlabofusp (25, 50, 75, or 100 mg) or placebo. The multiple ascending-dose (MAD) study (NCT04519567) evaluated nomlabofusp (25 mg daily for 4 days then every third day, 50 mg daily for 7 days then every 2 days, or 100 mg daily) or placebo for 13 days. RESULTS: Patients aged 19-69 years were enrolled (SAD, N = 28; MAD, N = 27). Nomlabofusp was generally well tolerated through 13 days. Most adverse events were mild and resolved quickly. No serious adverse events or deaths were reported. Peak nomlabofusp plasma concentrations occurred 15 min after subcutaneous administration. Nomlabofusp plasma exposures increased with increasing doses and daily administration and decreased with reduced dosing frequency. Increased frataxin concentrations were observed in buccal cells, skin, and platelets with higher and more frequent nomlabofusp administration. INTERPRETATION: Results from this study support a favorable safety profile for nomlabofusp. Subcutaneous nomlabofusp injections were quickly absorbed; higher doses and daily administration resulted in increased tissue frataxin concentrations. Future studies will evaluate longer-term safety and possible efficacy of nomlabofusp.

FDA Public Workshop Summary-Addressing Challenges in Inhaled Antifungal Drug Development.

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and invasive fungal diseases represent distinct infectious entities that cause significant morbidity and mortality. Currently, administered inhaled antifungal therapies are unapproved, have suboptimal efficacy, and are associated with considerable adverse reactions. The emergence of resistant pathogens is also a growing concern. Inhaled antifungal development programs are challenged by inadequate nonclinical infection models, highly heterogenous patient populations, low prevalence rates of fungal diseases, difficulties defining clinical trial enrollment criteria, and lack of robust clinical trial endpoints. On September 25, 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) convened a workshop with experts in pulmonary medicine and infectious diseases from academia, industry, and other governmental agencies. Key discussion topics included regulatory incentives to facilitate development of inhaled antifungal drugs and combination inhalational devices, limitations of existing nonclinical models and clinical trial designs, patient perspectives, and industry insights.

Diminishing Psychological Reactance Through Self-Transcendent Media Experiences: A Self-Report and Psychophysiological Investigation.

Health communication scholars have provided ample evidence demonstrating the ways in which freedom-threatening language used in persuasive health messages evokes freedom-threat perceptions, state psychological reactance, and intentions to engage in behaviors opposite of those recommended by the health message. This study examined a novel mitigation strategy for diminishing these outcomes. We examined whether prior exposure to entertainment portrayals of moral virtue (versus a neutral video) can dampen audiences' psychological reactance, intentions to consume alcohol, and defensive message processing via their psychophysiological responses to a subsequent, freedom-threatening excessive alcohol consumption public service announcement (PSA). The results revealed that participants who viewed entertainment portrayals of moral virtue (N = 50 college-aged participants) self-reported higher levels of elevation, moved, and inspiration relative to participants in the control condition (N = 50 college-aged participants). Participants who were exposed to entertainment portrayals of moral virtue prior to the excessive alcohol consumption PSA also self-reported less psychological reactance and fewer behavioral intentions to consume alcohol following the excessive alcohol consumption PSA than participants in the control condition. Consistent with these self-report data, participants in the entertainment portrayals of moral virtue condition exhibited less defensive message processing of the excessive alcohol consumption PSA via their psychophysiological responses relative to the control group. The results indicate that initial exposure to entertainment portrayals of moral virtue can dampen audiences' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to a subsequent, freedom-threatening health message, thereby increasing the chances of improved health outcomes.

The Relationship Between Pharmacist Resilience, Burnout, and Job Performance.

BACKGROUND: Resilience aids healthcare professionals in navigating through and bouncing back from stressful situations in the workplace. Resilience can increase job satisfaction, work motivation, and professional commitment while decreasing burnout, and ultimately job turnover. More resilient employees experience lower instances of burnout and greater life satisfaction. OBJECTIVE: The primary study objective is to determine the relationship that pharmacist resilience has on burnout and job performance. METHODS: Licensed pharmacists in Florida were sent a Qualtrics survey (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) via email, which included demographics data, and valid and reliable assessment tools for resilience, burnout, and job performance. Linear regressions were used to test if resilience significantly predicted each of the output variables: burnout and job performance. RESULTS: Survey responses were received from 942 pharmacists. The regressions showed that resilience significantly predicted both burnout (ß1 = -.701, P < .001) and job performance (ß1 = .35, P < .001). As resilience increased, the levels of burnout decreased, and job performance increased. Resilience explained 29% of the variance in burnout, and 11% of the variance in job performance. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that resilience significantly predicts both pharmacist work-related burnout and job performance. The more resilient the pharmacist, the lower the chances of work-related burnout and the higher the likelihood of better job performance. Organizations should pursue opportunities to educate healthcare workers on methods to increase resilience and to bring attention to the importance of this topic.

Social Facilitation in Fear Appeals Creates Positive Affect but Inhibits Healthy Eating Intentions.

The social facilitation of eating plays a significant role in influencing individuals' eating decisions. However, how social eating cues are processed in health promotion messages is unclear. This study examined individuals' food craving in response to social cues in images (Experiment 1) and emotional experiences, perceived threat, perceived efficacy, behavioral intentions, and motivational coactivation elicited by social eating cues in obesity prevention fear appeals (Experiment 2). Results suggested that the presence of a group of people eating in an image facilitated food craving for the presented foods. Moreover, fear appeals that presented obesity and its consequences with more social eating cues, versus individual eating cues, generated greater positive emotional responses, perceived threat severity, response and self-efficacy, and motivational coactivation indicating more attention and threat vigilance. However, these cues also generated fewer self-reported intentions to change unhealthy eating behaviors. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The relationship between pharmacist emotional intelligence, occupational stress, job performance, and psychological affective well-being.

BACKGROUND: Emotional intelligence (EI) is known to improve teamwork, communication, and organizational commitment. The role of EI has also influenced pharmacists' ability to empathize, control emotions, and actively listen. Although EI's impact on work-related components, including occupational stress, job performance, and psychological affective well-being, has been studied, there are no data specific to the practice of pharmacy. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this study was to determine whether a significant correlation exists between pharmacist EI and work-related components. METHODS: A voluntary Qualtrics survey (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) was distributed electronically to all active pharmacists licensed by the Florida Board of Pharmacy, which included questions from valid and reliable assessment tools. Spearman correlations were used to examine the association between EI facets and dependent variables of occupational stress, job performance, and psychological affective well-being. A subanalysis was conducted to evaluate demographic data. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05 for all tests. Incomplete survey responses were included in the analysis. RESULTS: A total of 942 responses were received and analyzed. Most of the respondents were aged 44 years or younger (42.5%), female (46.9%), identified as Caucasian (52.8%), and worked 31-40 hours weekly (20.6%). Most of the respondents reported a primary employment setting within community (29.3%) or hospital (18.6%) pharmacy. Higher EI correlated with lower levels of occupational stress, higher job performance, and higher psychological affective well-being. Secondary outcomes reported increased stress for both females and those practicing in the community setting; hospital-based pharmacists reported higher job performance and psychological affective well-being. Stress decreased with both age and years of experience. CONCLUSION: Higher EI may support overall wellness for pharmacists on the basis of the results of this study. Additional evaluation of demographic data, including practice settings, and a more robust cohort of participants would provide more insight in this area.

Experimental Effects of Viewing Thin and Plus-Size Models in Objectifying and Empowering Contexts on Instagram.

To counter the negative effects of viewing unrealistically thin and attractive models in beauty and fashion advertisements, some companies depict women with larger bodies in their advertisement campaigns. Previous experimental evidence suggests women may feel more satisfied with their own bodies immediately after viewing advertisements featuring these models. The current study aimed to extend these findings by examining the moderating role of trait body discrepancies and the presence of objectifying advertising slogans in advertisements. A sample of 202 undergraduate students who identified as female viewed advertisements depicted on Instagram that varied in the model's body size (thin or plus-size) and slogan type (objectifying or empowering). Body satisfaction and actual-ideal body discrepancy were measured. As expected, the body size of the model significantly improved women's body satisfaction and this effect was moderated by participants' actual-ideal body discrepancy. No effects for objectifying slogans (versus empowering slogans) featured in the advertisements were discovered. The implications for these findings are discussed.

Smoking Status Matters: A Direct Comparison of Smokers' and Nonsmokers' Psychophysiological and Self-Report Responses to Secondhand Smoke Anti-Tobacco PSAs.

Extensive research demonstrates that exposure to threatening anti-tobacco messages can lead to defensive message processing which reduces message effectiveness. However, research investigating whether this effect is moderated by the smoking status of the message viewer is lacking. In this study, participants (N = 48 smokers and N = 51 non-smokers) viewed and rated secondhand smoke anti-tobacco messages depicting both smoking cues and threat content, or messages depicting neither while heart rate, skin conductance, and facial EMG were recorded. Post viewing, self-reported emotional experience, level of counterarguing, and recognition memory were measured. In support of the LC4MP, there were no differences between smokers and non-smokers' responses for non-threatening messages absent in smoking cues. However, messages that contained both smoking cues and threat content were defensively processed by smokers - but not non-smokers - as indicated by significantly faster heart rate, lower recognition memory and higher self-reported negativity, arousal, and counterarguments. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Testing the Effect of Vapor in ENDS Public Service Announcements on Current Smokers and ENDS Users' Psychophysiological Responses and Smoking and Vaping Urge.

Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are increasingly popular, especially among young adults. Many ENDS advertisements and anti-ENDS public service announcements (PSAs) contain portrayals of ENDS use and visible vapor. Though it is plausible that vapor would be processed in similar ways to traditional combustible cigarette smoking cues, this has not been consistently established. In a laboratory session, we assessed cognitive and emotional processing using psychophysiological measures (e.g., facial electromyography, heart rate, and skin conductance) among young participants who were either smokers only (N = 43) or dual users of ENDS and cigarettes (N = 28) as they viewed four anti-vaping PSAs depicting either vapor or no vapor. Self-report urge to smoke traditional cigarettes and urge to vape and recognition (encoding) of information within the PSAs were measured following each PSA. Orbicularis oculi activation (positive emotion), heart rate deceleration (cognitive resource allocation), recognition (encoding), and vaping urge were greater in the vapor-present condition relative to vapor-absent condition. Hence, the presence of vapor in anti-vaping PSAs activates the approach/appetitive motivational system indicated by greater positive emotion, cognitive resource allocation, and memory, but also greater vaping urge compared to PSAs absent in vapor. Recommendations for inclusion of vapor and design of anti-vaping PSAs are discussed.

Conditioned "Cross Fading": The Incentive Motivational Effects of Mediated-Polysubstance Pairings on Alcohol, Marijuana, and Junk Food Craving.

The bulk of mass media and substance cue research has examined the processes and effects of substance cue images in isolation under controlled experimental conditions. However, little attention has been devoted to delineating the specific outcomes associated with simultaneous polysubstance depictions. This study experimentally examined whether alcohol, marijuana, and junk food mediated cues influence craving independently and whether craving for these substances is co-facilitated by simultaneous polysubstance cue depictions. At a laboratory session, participants reported their craving to substance cues in isolation and when paired with one another. The results from this study support the incentive sensitization model and polysubstance literature indicating that alcohol and marijuana cues facilitate craving for both alcohol and marijuana above and beyond when alcohol and marijuana cues are depicted in isolation for high and low users of each substance. Junk food craving was not facilitated by alcohol and marijuana cues. Theoretically, this study supports the notion that simultaneous and repeated use of multiple substances results in greater hypersensitivity and craving to mediated polysubstance cues than the cues in isolation. Practically, this study provides a word of caution for researchers examining craving responses to mediated substance cue messages and recommendations for health professionals and message designers.

Deceived, Disgusted, and Defensive: Motivated Processing of Anti-Tobacco Advertisements.

A 2 × 2 experiment was conducted, where participants watched anti-tobacco messages that varied in deception (content portraying tobacco companies as dishonest) and disgust (negative graphic images) content. Psychophysiological measures, self-report, and a recognition test were used to test hypotheses generated from the motivated cognition framework. The results of this study indicate that messages containing both deception and disgust push viewers into a cascade of defensive responses reflected by increased self-reported unpleasantness, reduced resources allocated to encoding, worsened recognition memory, and dampened emotional responses compared to messages depicting one attribute or neither. Findings from this study demonstrate the value of applying a motivated cognition theoretical framework in research on responses to emotional content in health messages and support previous research on defensive processing and message design of anti-tobacco messages.

Increased Fat Absorption From Enteral Formula Through an In-line Digestive Cartridge in Patients With Cystic Fibrosis.

OBJECTIVES: Supplemental enteral nutrition (EN) is used by approximately 12% of people with cystic fibrosis (CF). The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and fat absorption of a new in-line digestive cartridge (Relizorb) that hydrolyzes fat in enteral formula provided to patients with CF. METHODS: Patients with CF receiving EN participated in a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial with an open-label safety evaluation period. Plasma omega-3 fatty acid (FA) concentrations were measured and used as markers of fat absorption. Gastrointestinal symptoms were recorded to evaluate safety and tolerability. Information regarding the effect of EN on appetite and breakfast consumption was also collected. RESULTS: Before study entry, participants had received EN for a mean of 6.6 years at a mean volume of approximately 800 mL, yet had a mean body mass index of only 17.5 kg/m and omega-3 FA plasma concentrations were only 60% of levels found in normal healthy subjects. Compared with placebo, cartridge use resulted in a statistically significant 2.8-fold increase in plasma omega-3 FA concentrations. There were no adverse experiences associated with cartridge use, and a decrease in the frequency and severity of most symptoms of malabsorption was observed with cartridge use. Participants reported increased preservation of appetite and breakfast consumption with cartridge use compared with their pre-study regimen. CONCLUSIONS: Use of this in-line digestive cartridge was safe and well tolerated, and resulted in significantly increased levels of plasma omega-3 FA used with enteral formula, suggesting an overall increased fat absorption.

Countering Craving with Disgust Images: Examining Nicotine Withdrawn Smokers' Motivated Message Processing of Anti-Tobacco Public Service Announcements.

There is a lack of research examining whether smoking cues in anti-tobacco advertisements elicit cravings, or whether this effect is moderated by countervailing message attributes, such as disgusting images. Furthermore, no research has examined how these types of messages influence nicotine withdrawn smokers' cognitive processing and associated behavioral intentions. At a laboratory session, participants (N = 50 nicotine-deprived adults) were tested for cognitive processing and recognition memory of 12 anti-tobacco advertisements varying in depictions of smoking cues and disgust content. Self-report smoking urges and intentions to quit smoking were measured after each message. The results from this experiment indicated that smoking cue messages activated appetitive/approach motivation resulting in enhanced attention and memory, but increased craving and reduced quit intentions. Disgust messages also enhanced attention and memory, but activated aversive/avoid motivation resulting in reduced craving and increased quit intentions. The combination of smoking cues and disgust content resulted in moderate amounts of craving and quit intentions, but also led to heart rate acceleration (indicating defensive processing) and poorer recognition of message content. These data suggest that in order to counter nicotine-deprived smokers' craving and prolong abstinence, anti-tobacco messages should omit smoking cues but include disgust. Theoretical implications are also discussed.

Discard the Smoking Cues-Keep the Disgust: An Investigation of Tobacco Smokers' Motivated Processing of Anti-tobacco Commercials.

This study experimentally examines the effect of smoking cues and disgust images commonly found in anti-tobacco advertisements on tobacco smokers' message processing. In a 2 (smoking cues) × 2 (disgust) within-subjects experiment, smokers watched anti-tobacco advertisements selected to vary in presence/absence of smoking cues and high/low ratings of disgust. The results of the experiment suggest that smoking cues and disgust images each have effects on resource allocation, recognition memory, emotional responses, smoking urges, and intentions to quit smoking. However, the most notable finding in this study was how the combination of smoking cues and disgust images in a single anti-tobacco message resulted in defensive message processing. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed along with future research directions.

Instagram Unfiltered: Exploring Associations of Body Image Satisfaction, Instagram #Selfie Posting, and Negative Romantic Relationship Outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors and consequences associated with Instagram selfie posting. Thus, this study explored whether body image satisfaction predicts Instagram selfie posting and whether Instagram selfie posting is then associated with Instagram-related conflict and negative romantic relationship outcomes. A total of 420 Instagram users aged 18 to 62 years (M = 29.3, SD = 8.12) completed an online survey questionnaire. Analysis of a serial multiple mediator model using bootstrapping methods indicated that body image satisfaction was sequentially associated with increased Instagram selfie posting and Instagram-related conflict, which related to increased negative romantic relationship outcomes. These findings suggest that when Instagram users promote their body image satisfaction in the form of Instagram selfie posts, risk of Instagram-related conflict and negative romantic relationship outcomes might ensue. Findings from the current study provide a baseline understanding to potential and timely trends regarding Instagram selfie posting.

The third wheel: the impact of Twitter use on relationship infidelity and divorce.

The purpose of this study was to examine how social networking site (SNS) use, specifically Twitter use, influences negative interpersonal relationship outcomes. This study specifically examined the mediational effect of Twitter-related conflict on the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes, and how this mechanism may be contingent on the length of the romantic relationship. A total of 581 Twitter users aged 18 to 67 years (Mage=29, SDage=8.9) completed an online survey questionnaire. Moderation-mediation regression analyses using bootstrapping methods indicated that Twitter-related conflict mediated the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes. The length of the romantic relationship, however, did not moderate the indirect effect on the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes. The results from this study suggest that active Twitter use leads to greater amounts of Twitter-related conflict among romantic partners, which in turn leads to infidelity, breakup, and divorce. This indirect effect is not contingent on the length of the romantic relationship. The current study adds to the growing body of literature investigating SNS use and romantic relationship outcomes.

Cheating, breakup, and divorce: is Facebook use to blame?

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between using the social networking site known as Facebook and negative interpersonal relationship outcomes. A survey of 205 Facebook users aged 18-82 was conducted using a 16-question online survey to examine whether high levels of Facebook use predicted negative relationship outcomes (breakup/divorce, emotional cheating, and physical cheating). It was hypothesized that those with higher levels of Facebook use would demonstrate more negative relationship outcomes than those with lower use. The study then examined whether these relationships were mediated by Facebook-related conflict. Furthermore, the researchers examined length of relationship as a moderator variable in the aforementioned model. The results indicate that a high level of Facebook usage is associated with negative relationship outcomes, and that these relationships are indeed mediated by Facebook-related conflict. This series of relationships only holds for those who are, or have been, in relatively newer relationships of 3 years or less. The current study adds to the growing body of literature investigating Internet use and relationship outcomes, and may be a precursor to further research investigating whether Facebook use attributes to the divorce rate, emotional cheating, and physical cheating.

Evaluation of the synthesis of sialic acid-PAMAM glycodendrimers without the use of sugar protecting groups, and the anti-HIV-1 properties of these compounds.

A study was undertaken to evaluate the feasibility of synthesizing six sialic acid-PAMAM glycodendrimers using unprotected sialic acid in as few as 1-4 steps using two different reaction pathways, and to assess the sulfated derivatives for anti-HIV activity. The syntheses were accomplished through either the direct attachment of the sialic acid carboxyl group to amine-terminated PAMAM (a divergent-like approach) using BOP coupling, or by first reacting sialic acid with a polar bifunctional spacer molecule, attaching the sugar-linker to carboxy-terminated PAMAM (a convergent-like approach), and again using BOP-mediated coupling reactions. It was hypothesized that the latter approach would be the most successful method, as any steric congestion between the sialic acid and the PAMAM would be minimized using an intervening polar linker. However, the divergent-like synthesis proved to be the superior method, resulting in 11.4%, 14%, and 28% of the fully substituted generations 0, 1, and 2 sialic acid-PAMAM conjugates, respectively, as compared to 6.4% of only the generation -0.5 sialic acid-linker-PAMAM conjugate for the convergent-like method. Upon sulfation of the four glycodendrimers, binding capabilities to the recombinant HIV protein, gp120, were assessed using an ELISA assay. Compounds that showed promising binding characteristics were then further assessed for inhibition of HIV-1 infection using a well-characterized luciferase reporter gene neutralization assay. The generation 2 sulfated sialic acid-PAMAM glycodendrimer, sulfo-6, bearing 16 sialic acids with 11 sulfate groups incorporated at 4.03% sulfur content by weight, was found to inhibit all four HIV-1 strains tested in the low micromolar range.