Dimensionality of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ48).

Currently there is debate as to whether mental toughness is a unidimensional or multidimensional construct. To investigate the dimensionality of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 48-items (MTQ48), a widely used measure of mental toughness, we examined data from a sample of 78,947 participants. A series of exploratory structural equation models (ESEM) assessed unidimensional, multidimensional, and bifactor solutions. Overall, results supported a bifactor conceptualization of mental toughness. Bifactor analysis was consistent with the use of a general factor score. In conclusion, the authors argue that mental toughness should be considered as an umbrella term representing a general trait comprised of related constructs that provide a psychological advantage in performance and promote positive mental health. Finally, this article identifies limitations in the existing measurement of mental toughness and proposes necessary directions in future research.

Bridging the gap: A network approach to Dark Triad, Mental Toughness, the Big Five, and perceived stress.

OBJECTIVE: We employed the network methodology to explore the connections between the Dark Triad (DT) traits with Mental Toughness (MT) and the degree to which they account for perceived stress beyond the Big Five (B5). METHOD: Network analyses were undertaken to explore connections between the DT, MT, and perceived stress, independently in two samples, and in the combined dataset; and whether B5 factors are responsible for the connections that emerged in the original network. RESULTS: DT and MT traits improved the prediction of perceived stress above the B5. Furthermore, narcissism occupied a strategic position in the network acting as a bridge between prosocial and "dark" sides of personality. The pattern of network connections could not be explained by B5 traits alone. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that there is more to personality than what can be captured by the B5 and that broadening the domain of personality beyond the B5 can improve the prediction of important outcomes, such as perceived stress. Narcissism is a unique trait and studying its connection with MT may be the key to moving forward from a dichotomous way of perceiving personality traits, as beneficial or malevolent, to focusing on a dynamic continuum of personality.

Mental Toughness and Individual Differences in Learning, Educational and Work Performance, Psychological Well-being, and Personality: A Systematic Review.

Mental toughness (MT) is an umbrella term that entails positive psychological resources, which are crucial across a wide range of achievement contexts and in the domain of mental health. We systematically review empirical studies that explored the associations between the concept of MT and individual differences in learning, educational and work performance, psychological well-being, personality, and other psychological attributes. Studies that explored the genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in MT are also reviewed. The findings suggest that MT is associated with various positive psychological traits, more efficient coping strategies and positive outcomes in education and mental health. Approximately 50% of the variation in MT can be accounted for by genetic factors. Furthermore, the associations between MT and psychological traits can be explained mainly by either common genetic or non-shared environmental factors. Taken together, our findings suggest a 'mental toughness advantage' with possible implications for developing interventions to facilitate achievement in a variety of settings.

Urban Legends and Paranormal Beliefs: The Role of Reality Testing and Schizotypy.

Recent research suggests that unconventional beliefs are locatable within a generic anomalous belief category. This notion derives from the observation that apparently dissimilar beliefs share fundamental, core characteristics (i.e., contradiction of orthodox scientific understanding of the universe and defiance of conventional understanding of reality). The present paper assessed the supposition that anomalous beliefs were conceptually similar and explicable via common psychological processes by comparing relationships between discrete beliefs [endorsement of urban legends (ULs) and belief in the paranormal] and cognitive-perceptual personality measures [proneness to reality testing (RT) and schizotypy]. A sample of 222 volunteers, recruited via convenience sampling, took part in the study. Participants completed a series of self-report measures (Urban Legends Questionnaire, Reality Testing subscale of the Inventory of Personality Organization, Revised Paranormal Belief Scale and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire Brief). Preliminary analysis revealed positive correlations between measures. Within schizotypy, the cognitive-perceptual factor was most strongly associated with anomalistic beliefs; disorganized and interpersonal produced only weak and negligible correlations respectively. Further investigation indicated complex relationships between RT, the cognitive-perceptual factor of schizotypy and anomalistic beliefs. Specifically, proneness to RT deficits explained a greater amount of variance in ULs, whilst schizotypy accounted for more variance in belief in the paranormal. Consideration of partial correlations supported these conclusions. The relationship between RT and ULs remained significant after controlling for the cognitive-perceptual factor. Contrastingly, the association between the cognitive-perceptual factor and ULs controlling for RT was non-significant. In the case of belief in the paranormal, controlling for proneness to RT reduced correlation size, but relationships remained significant. This study demonstrated that anomalistic beliefs vary in nature and composition. Findings indicated that generalized views of anomalistic beliefs provide only limited insight into the complex nature of belief.

Mental Toughness in South African Youth.

Young people are particularly vulnerable to health risk behaviors and interpersonal violence, stimulating scholars' attention towards identifying factors that may reduce the likelihood that these actions will occur. Associated with positive outcomes in a variety of domains, mental toughness in young people might protect them from engaging in potentially deleterious interpersonal or health-risk behaviors, while potentially promoting positive psychological behaviors. Within this framework, the present study investigated the relationships between mental toughness, attitudes towards physical and psychological risk-taking, and trait forgiveness in a sample of 123 (males = 54, females = 69) South African youth ( M age = 23.97 years, SD = 4.46). Univariate and multivariate analyses indicated higher levels of mental toughness were associated with being more forgiving, ([Formula: see text] = .036), perceiving physical risk-taking more positively ([Formula: see text] = .062), but having more negative attitudes towards psychological risk-taking ([Formula: see text] = .036). These findings give credence to mental toughness as a psychological characteristic involved in youth risk-taking perceptions and interpersonal functioning. Future research might explore the integration of mental toughness into the development of future youth risk behavior interventions.

During early to mid adolescence, moderate to vigorous physical activity is associated with restoring sleep, psychological functioning, mental toughness and male gender.

Numerous studies showed that regular physical activity (PA) is associated with both favourable and restorative sleep and improved psychological functioning (PF). However, there is little research on the topic covering the early to mid-adolescence period. Moreover, curiosity and exploratory behaviour (CEB) and mental toughness (MT) as a result of PA remains thus far uninvestigated, as do possible gender differences. The aim of the present study was to explore the associations between PA, subjective sleep (sS), PF, CEB, and MT during early to mid-adolescence. A total of 1361 participants (mean age = 13.37 years; range: 11-16 years; 51.2% female) took part in the study. They completed questionnaires covering PA, sS, PF, CEB, and MT. Greater PA was related to improved PF, better sS, and increased CEB and MT. Compared to male participants, females reported less PA, poorer sS, and had lower PF and MT scores. The present pattern of results suggests that during early and mid-adolescence greater PA was associated with more favourable sS and better PF, including CEB and MT, and that female participants reported lower scores in PA, sS, and PF. Accordingly, if PA has a favourable impact on sleep and psychological functioning, then data suggest that sports participation should be more tailored to increase motivation among female adolescents.

The Origins of Mental Toughness - Prosocial Behavior and Low Internalizing and Externalizing Problems at Age 5 Predict Higher Mental Toughness Scores at Age 14.

BACKGROUND: The concept of mental toughness (MT) has gained increasing importance among groups other than elite athletes by virtue of its psychological importance and explanatory power for a broad range of health-related behaviors. However, no study has focused so far on the psychological origins of MT. Therefore, the aims of the present study were: to explore, to what extent the psychological profiles of preschoolers aged five were associated with both (1) MT scores and (2) sleep disturbances at age 14, and 3) to explore possible gender differences. METHOD: Nine years after their first assessment at age five (preschoolers), a total of 77 adolescents (mean age: 14.35 years; SD = 1.22; 42% females) took part in this follow-up study. At baseline, both parents and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), covering internalizing and externalizing problems, hyperactivity, negative peer relationships, and prosocial behavior. At follow-up, participants completed a booklet of questionnaires covering socio-demographic data, MT, and sleep disturbances. RESULTS: Higher prosocial behavior, lower negative peer relationships, and lower internalizing and externalizing problems at age five, as rated by parents and teachers, were associated with self-reported higher MT and lower sleep disturbances at age 14. At age 14, and relative to males, females had lower MT scores and reported more sleep disturbances. CONCLUSION: The pattern of results suggests that MT traits during adolescence may have their origins in the pre-school years.

Mental toughness, sleep disturbances, and physical activity in patients with multiple sclerosis compared to healthy adolescents and young adults.

BACKGROUND: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common chronic autoimmune demyelinating and inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, afflicting both the body and mind. The risk of suffering from MS is 2.5-3.5 times greater in females than in males. While there is extant research on fatigue, depression, and cognitive impairment in patients with MS during its clinical course, there is a lack of research focusing on sleep, psychological functioning, and physical activity (PA) at the point of disease onset. The aims of the present study were therefore, to assess the markers of mental toughness (MT) as a dimension of psychological functioning, sleep disturbances (SD), and PA among patients at the moment of disease onset and to compare these with the corresponding values for healthy adolescents and young adults. METHODS: A total of 23 patients with MS at disease onset (mean age =32.31 years; 91% females), 23 healthy adolescents (mean age =17.43 years; 82% females), and 25 healthy young adults (mean age =20.72 years; 80% females) took part in the study. They completed questionnaires covering sociodemographic data, MT, SD, and PA. RESULTS: Patients with MS had similar scores for MT traits as those in healthy adolescents and healthy young adults, and equivalent levels of moderate-intensity PA and SD as young adults. MS patients reported lower levels of vigorous PA compared to both healthy adolescents and young adults. CONCLUSION: The pattern of the results of the present study suggests that the onset of MS is not associated with poor MT, poor sleep, or reduced moderate-intensity PA. Lower levels of vigorous PA were observed in MS patients. Low levels of vigorous PA may lead to decreased cardiorespiratory fitness in patients with MS and, in the long run, to reduced cardiovascular health and degraded psychological functioning.

Examining Dark Triad traits in relation to mental toughness and physical activity in young adults.

OBJECTIVE: The Dark Triad (DT) describes a set of three closely related personality traits: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. Mental toughness (MT) refers to a psychological construct combining confidence, commitment, control, and challenge. High MT is related to greater physical activity (PA) and, relative to men, women have lower MT scores. The aims of the present study were 1) to investigate the association between DT, MT, and PA, and 2) to compare the DT, MT, and PA scores of men and women. METHODS: A total of 341 adults (M=29 years; 51.6% women; range: 18-37 years) took part in the study. Participants completed a series of questionnaires assessing DT, MT, and PA. RESULTS: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy were all significantly associated with higher MT scores (rs =0.45, 0.50, and 0.20, respectively). DT traits and MT were associated with more vigorous PA. Compared to men, women participants had lower scores for DT traits (overall score and psychopathy), while no differences were found for MT or PA in both sexes. CONCLUSION: DT traits, high MT, and vigorous PA are interrelated. This pattern of results might explain why, for instance, successful professional athletes can at the same time be tough and ruthless.

During early and mid-adolescence, greater mental toughness is related to increased sleep quality and quality of life.

The aim of this study was to explore the association between mental toughness, subjective sleep, physical activity, and quality of life during early and mid-adolescence. A total of 1475 participants (mean age = 13.4 years; range: 11-16 years) took part in the study. They completed questionnaires related to mental toughness, physical activity, subjective sleep, and quality of life. Greater mental toughness was related to more favorable quality of life and increased subjective sleep. Mental toughness was not related to physical activity. Increased mental toughness, favorable quality of life, and sleep are related during early and mid-adolescence. Against our expectations, mental toughness was not related to physical activity.

Apolipoprotein E ε4 allele modulates the immediate impact of acute exercise on prefrontal function.

The difference between Apolipoprotein E ε4 carriers and non-carriers in response to single exercise sessions was tested. Stroop and Posner tasks were administered to young untrained women immediately after walking sessions or moderately heavy exercise. Exercise had a significantly more profound impact on the Stroop effect than on the Posner effect, suggesting selective involvement of prefrontal function. A significant genotype-by-exercise interaction indicated differences in response to exercise between ε4 carriers and non-carriers. Carriers showed facilitation triggered by exercise. The transient executive down-regulation was construed as due to exercise-dependent hypofrontality. The facilitation observed in carriers was interpreted as better management of prefrontal metabolic resources, and explained within the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis framework. The findings have implications for the interpretation of differences between ε4 carriers and non-carriers in the benefits triggered by long-term exercise that might depend, at least partially, on mechanisms of metabolic response to physical activity.

Development and validation of the compliant and principled sportspersonship scale.

PURPOSE: A new measure of sportspersonship, which differentiates between compliance and principled approaches, was developed and initially validated in 3 studies. METHOD: Study 1 developed items, assessed content validity, and proposed a model. Study 2 tested the factorial validity of the model on an independent sample. Study 3 further tested the factorial validity on another independent sample as well as the construct validity. RESULTS: In Study 1, a 71-item questionnaire was developed. Exploratory factor analysis reduced the questionnaire to a 6-factor, 33-item scale explaining 47.70% of the variance. Study 2 tested this revised questionnaire in a series of confirmatory factor analyses, presenting a 24-item and 5-factor model with acceptable fit, χ(2)(242) = 455.9, comparative fit index = .93, Tucker-Lewis Index = .92, standardized root mean square residual = .05, root mean square error of approximation = .04. Study 3 provided some evidence to support the construct validity of the 24-item scale using theoretically associated measures. CONCLUSIONS: This series of studies provided some initial validity evidences of the Compliant and Principled Sportspersonship Scale.

A preliminary investigation of potential cognitive performance decrements in non-help-seeking tinnitus sufferers.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the possible impact of tinnitus on the performance of challenging cognitive tasks. DESIGN: Participants completed the hospital anxiety and depression scale and completed two cognitive tasks: the Vienna determination task and a variant of the Stroop paradigm. In addition, tinnitus sufferers completed the subjective tinnitus severity scale. STUDY SAMPLE: Thirty-three tinnitus sufferers and 33 controls took part in the study (n = 66). RESULTS: Tinnitus sufferers were no more depressed nor anxious than controls, but they performed less well on both cognitive tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Possible causes and implications of these performance decrements are discussed, with particular attention given to the possibility that subjective distress is an important moderating factor in tinnitus sufferers.

"Sleep well, our tough heroes!"--in adolescence, greater mental toughness is related to better sleep schedules.

Mental toughness (MT) is understood as the display of confidence, commitment, challenge, and control. The aim of this study was to explore the extent to which greater MT is associated with subjectively assessed sleep among adolescents. A total of 284 adolescents (M = 18.26 years) completed a series of questionnaires assessing MT, psychological functioning, and sleep. Greater MT was significantly associated with better sleep quality, shorter sleep onset latency, fewer awakenings after sleep onset, and longer sleep duration. Greater MT was also associated with less perceived stress and less depressive symptoms. MT was directly and indirectly associated with sleep quality. Mentally tough adolescents report good sleep quality and sleep schedules, along with psychological wellbeing.

Adolescents with greater mental toughness show higher sleep efficiency, more deep sleep and fewer awakenings after sleep onset.

PURPOSE: Mental toughness (MT) is understood as the display of confidence, commitment, challenge, and control. Mental toughness is associated with resilience against stress. However, research has not yet focused on the relation between MT and objective sleep. The aim of the present study was therefore to explore the extent to which greater MT is associated with objectively assessed sleep among adolescents. METHODS: A total of 92 adolescents (35% females; mean age, 18.92 years) completed the Mental Toughness Questionnaire. Participants were split into groups of high and low mental toughness. Objective sleep was recorded via sleep electroencephalograms and subjective sleep was assessed via a questionnaire. RESULTS: Compared with participants with low MT, participants with high MT had higher sleep efficiency, a lower number of awakenings after sleep onset, less light sleep, and more deep sleep. They also reported lower daytime sleepiness. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents reporting higher MT also had objectively better sleep, as recorded via sleep electroencephalograms. A bidirectional association between MT and sleep seems likely; therefore, among adolescence, improving sleep should increase MT, and improving MT should increase sleep.

Are adolescents with high mental toughness levels more resilient against stress?

Mental toughness has been explored predominantly within sport contexts. Nevertheless, it is difficult to conceive mental toughness as only applicable to athletes. This study examines whether mentally tough participants exhibit resilience against stress. This is a cross-sectional study based on two different samples: Sample 1 consisted of 284 high school students (99 males, 185 females, M = 18.3 years). Sample 2 consisted of 140 first through fifth semester undergraduate students (53 males, 87 females, M = 20.0 years). Participants provided information about their level of perceived stress (10-item Perceived Stress Scale), mental toughness (48-item Mental Toughness Questionnaire) and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory). Consistent across the two samples, mental toughness mitigated the relationship between high stress and depressive symptoms. The interaction between stress and mental toughness explained 2% of variance in the adolescent sample and 10% of variance among young adults. The promotion of protective factors that foster resilient adaptation is a relevant issue. Mental toughness may appeal to individuals that are typically difficult to be reached with health interventions. Because mental toughness is part of young people's daily speech, it may serve as a less academic resource than other health psychology concepts.

Development and validation of a virtual reality simulator: human factors input to interventional radiology training.

OBJECTIVE: This study developed and validated a virtual reality (VR) simulator for use by interventional radiologists. BACKGROUND: Research in the area of skill acquisition reports practice as essential to become a task expert. Studies on simulation show skills learned in VR can be successfully transferred to a real-world task. Recently, with improvements in technology, VR simulators have been developed to allow complex medical procedures to be practiced without risking the patient. METHOD: Three studies are reported. In Study I, 35 consultant interventional radiologists took part in a cognitive task analysis to empirically establish the key competencies of the Seldinger procedure. In Study 2, 62 participants performed one simulated procedure, and their performance was compared by expertise. In Study 3, the transferability of simulator training to a real-world procedure was assessed with 14 trainees. RESULTS: Study I produced 23 key competencies that were implemented as performance measures in the simulator. Study 2 showed the simulator had both face and construct validity, although some issues were identified. Study 3 showed the group that had undergone simulator training received significantly higher mean performance ratings on a subsequent patient procedure. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study support the centrality of validation in the successful design of simulators and show the utility of simulators as a training device. APPLICATION: The studies show the key elements of a validation program for a simulator. In addition to task analysis and face and construct validities, the authors highlight the importance of transfer of training in validation studies.

Adherence to sport injury rehabilitation programmes: a conceptual review.

It is widely acknowledged that the importance of sound theoretical guidance is essential to any academic discipline. A common recommendation within the adherence literature related to sport injury rehabilitation has been the need to establish clear theoretical frameworks to guide research and practice. As such, an increasing amount of literature has employed conceptual models that include protection motivation theory, health action process approach, cognitive appraisal models, and attribution theory. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to critically evaluate these contemporary theoretical approaches that have been utilised within the sport injury rehabilitation adherence literature. Alongside this, practical implications emerging from this research base are outlined and future recommendations are suggested that may be of benefit to sports medicine practitioners and researchers alike.

The influence of rhythm and personality in the endurance response to motivational asynchronous music.

In this study, we examined participants' responses to motivational asynchronous music by isolating rhythmical properties and exploring personality correlates. Fifty-eight physically active participants (41 men and 17 women) aged 22.3 +/- 6.4 years performed an isometric weight-holding task on three occasions while being randomly exposed to no music, rhythm and motivational music. The rhythm and music conditions were edited portions of the same musical selection and had identical fast tempi, although the rhythm condition contained no melody, harmonies or lyrics. Participants each completed a copy of Cattell's 16PF following the third and final trial. A repeated-measures analysis of variance found the participants held the weight suspended for significantly longer when listening to motivational music in comparison to rhythm or no music. When listening to rhythm, participants endured the task for significantly longer than when listening to no music. The response to music was found to be significantly related to liveliness, while sensitivity correlated with responses to music factors (harmony, melody, lyrics, etc.) not present in the rhythm condition. These results suggest that responses to motivational music are subtle in nature and are determined by both musical factors and individual characteristics, and potentially an interaction between the two.

Relationship between mental toughness and physical endurance.

This study tested the criterion validity of the inventory, Mental Toughness 48, by assessing the correlation between mental toughness and physical endurance for 41 male undergraduate sports students. A significant correlation of .34 was found between scores for overall mental toughness and the time a relative weight could be held suspended. Results support the criterion-related validity of the Mental Toughness 48.