ABSTRACT
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative autoimmune disease with many known structural and functional changes in the central nervous system. A well-recognized, but poorly understood, complication of MS is chronic pain. Little is known regarding the influence of sex on the development and maintenance of MS-related pain. This is important to consider, as MS is a predominantly female disease. Using the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model of MS, we demonstrate sex differences in measures of spinal cord inflammation and plasticity that accompany tactile hypersensitivity. Although we observed substantial inflammatory activity in both sexes, only male EAE mice exhibit robust staining of axonal injury markers and increased dendritic arborisation in morphology of deep dorsal horn neurons. We propose that tactile hypersensitivity in female EAE mice may be more immune-driven, whereas pain in male mice with EAE may rely more heavily on neurodegenerative and plasticity-related mechanisms. Morphological and inflammatory differences in the spinal cord associated with pain early in EAE progression supports the idea of differentially regulated pain pathways between the sexes. Results from this study may indicate future sex-specific targets that are worth investigating for their functional role in pain circuitry.
Subject(s)
Central Nervous System/physiopathology , Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/complications , Neuronal Plasticity/physiology , Pain/etiology , Pain/pathology , Animals , Axons/pathology , Axons/ultrastructure , Calcium-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Central Nervous System/pathology , Central Nervous System/ultrastructure , Disease Models, Animal , Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/chemically induced , Estrous Cycle/physiology , Female , Freund's Adjuvant/toxicity , Hyperalgesia/physiopathology , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Microfilament Proteins/metabolism , Motor Activity/physiology , Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/immunology , Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/toxicity , Pain Threshold/physiology , Peptide Fragments/immunology , Peptide Fragments/toxicity , Pertussis Toxin/toxicity , Physical Stimulation/adverse effects , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
Selective brain cooling is a promising advent for reducing final infarct volume and improving outcomes in ischemic stroke victims. Despite the robust body of evidence from animal studies, evidence supporting the use of selective hypothermia in stroke patients is lacking. A recent study provided promising results on the safety and possible efficacy of selective brain hypothermia via intraarterial infusion of cooled saline. Better understanding of the patients' population that may attain benefit from this approach will be informative. Details of infarct progression using perfusion imaging will also help understand the mechanism of effect of selective hypothermia to inform future trials.
Subject(s)
Cerebral Infarction/therapy , Hypothermia, Induced , Stroke/therapy , Animals , Cerebral Infarction/physiopathology , Humans , Stroke/physiopathologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Chronic neuropathic pain is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS). MOG35-55-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) has been used as an animal model to investigate the mechanisms of pain in MS. Previous studies have implicated sensitization of spinal nociceptive networks in the pathogenesis of pain in EAE. However, the involvement of supraspinal sites of nociceptive integration, such as the primary somatosensory cortex (S1), has not been defined. We therefore examined functional, structural, and immunological alterations in S1 during the early stages of EAE, when pain behaviors first appear. We also assessed the effects of the antidepressant phenelzine (PLZ) on S1 alterations and nociceptive (mechanical) sensitivity in early EAE. PLZ has been shown to restore central nervous system (CNS) tissue concentrations of GABA and the monoamines (5-HT, NA) in EAE. We hypothesized that PLZ treatment would also normalize nociceptive sensitivity in EAE by restoring the balance of excitation and inhibition (E-I) in the CNS. METHODS: We used in vivo flavoprotein autofluorescence imaging (FAI) to assess neural ensemble responses in S1 to vibrotactile stimulation of the limbs in early EAE. We also used immunohistochemistry (IHC), and Golgi-Cox staining, to examine synaptic changes and neuroinflammation in S1. Mechanical sensitivity was assessed at the clinical onset of EAE with Von Frey hairs. RESULTS: Mice with early EAE exhibited significantly intensified and expanded FAI responses in S1 compared to controls. IHC revealed increased vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT1) expression and disrupted parvalbumin+ (PV+) interneuron connectivity in S1 of EAE mice. Furthermore, peri-neuronal nets (PNNs) were significantly reduced in S1. Morphological analysis of excitatory neurons in S1 revealed increased dendritic spine densities. Iba-1+ cortical microglia were significantly elevated early in the disease. Chronic PLZ treatment was found to normalize mechanical thresholds in EAE. PLZ also normalized S1 FAI responses, neuronal morphologies, and cortical microglia numbers and attenuated VGLUT1 reactivity-but did not significantly attenuate the loss of PNNs. CONCLUSIONS: These findings implicate a pro-excitatory shift in the E-I balance of the somatosensory CNS, arising early in the pathogenesis EAE and leading to large-scale functional and structural plasticity in S1. They also suggest a novel antinociceptive effect of PLZ treatment.
