Relationships between handling, behaviour and stress in lambs at abattoirs.

There is community concern about the treatment of farm animals post-farm gate, particularly animal transport and slaughter. Relationships between lamb behavioural and physiological variables on farm, stockperson, dog and lamb behavioural variables pre-slaughter and plasma cortisol, glucose and lactate in lambs post-slaughter were studied in 400 lambs. The lambs were observed in three behavioural tests, novel arena, flight distance to a human and temperament tests, before transport for slaughter. Closed-circuit television video footage was used to record stockperson, dog and lamb behaviour immediately before slaughter. Blood samples for cortisol, glucose and lactate analyses were collected on farm following the three behavioural tests and immediately post-slaughter. The regression models that best predicted plasma cortisol, glucose and lactate concentrations post-slaughter included a mixture of stockperson and dog behavioural variables as well as lamb variables both on-farm and pre-slaughter. These regression models accounted for 33%, 34% and 44% of the variance in plasma cortisol, glucose and lactate concentrations post-slaughter, respectively. Some of the stockperson and dog behaviours pre-slaughter that were predictive of the stress and metabolic variables post-slaughter included the duration of negative stockperson behaviours such as fast locomotion and lifting/pulling lambs, and the duration of dog behaviours such as lunging and barking at the lamb, while some of the predictive lamb behaviour variables included the durations of jumping and fleeing. Some of the physiological and behavioural responses to the behavioural tests on farm were also predictive of the stress and metabolic variables post-slaughter. These relationships support the well-demonstrated effect of handling on fear and stress responses in livestock, and although not direct evidence of causal relationships, highlight the potential benefits of training stockpeople to reduce fear and stress in sheep at abattoirs.

Training to improve stockperson beliefs and behaviour towards livestock enhances welfare and productivity.

The principle that supervising and managing animals affects farm animal welfare is widely recognised within the livestock industries. However,the manner in which the stockperson affects animal welfare, both directly and indirectly, is probably not fully appreciated. Together with the opportunity to perform their tasks well, stockpeople require a range of well-developed husbandry skills and knowledge to effectively care for and manage farm animals. There are three main factors that can be considered to contribute to a stockperson's work performance: capacity, willingness and opportunity. Capacity includes variables such as skills, health, ability and knowledge, while willingness includes motivation, job satisfaction, attitude to the animals and work attitude, and opportunity includes working conditions, actions of co-workers and organisational policies and rules. This paper briefly reviews the influence of the stockperson on livestock welfare and productivity and the opportunities to improve the stockperson's performance through training. It is clear that there is a continuing need for livestock industries to train their personnel to effectively care for and handle their stock. Underestimating the role and impact of the stockperson will seriously risk the welfare and productivity of livestock. Indeed, the stockperson may be the most influential factor affecting animal handling, welfare and productivity. Furthermore, it is likely that, in the near future, both the livestock industries and the general community will place an increasing emphasis on ensuring the competency of stockpeople to manage the welfare of livestock.

The effects of cognitive behavioral intervention on the attitude and behavior of stockpersons and the behavior and productivity of commercial dairy cows.

Two experiments, one involving 29 commercial farms and the other involving 94 commercial farms, were conducted to examine the effects of a training program targeting a number of attitudinal and behavioral variables in stockpeople. These stockperson variables had been previously shown to be related to fear of humans and productivity of commercial cows. In both experiments, two treatments were imposed: an Intervention treatment, consisting of a cognitive-behavioral intervention procedure designed to improve the attitude and behavior of stockpeople toward cows, and a Control treatment, in which no intervention was attempted. In Exp. 1, an analysis of covariance, using previous lactation variables as the covariate, revealed effects of the Intervention treatment on the attitude and behavior of the stockpeople and the behavior of cows. Stockpeople at Intervention farms showed more (P < 0.01) positive beliefs about handling cows and used a lower (P < 0.05) number and percentage of negative tactile interactions in handling cows than stockpeople at the Control farms. Cows at the Intervention farms showed a shorter (P < 0.05) flight distance to humans, indicating a lower level of fear of humans by these cows. However, 36% of the Intervention farms failed to show a reduction in average flight distance over the two lactations. Although there was no significant treatment effect on milk yield, the Intervention farms in which fear levels declined following the intervention had a higher (P < 0.05) milk yield than the other farms. In Exp. 2, a significant (P < 0.05) increase was found in the milk yield of cows following the Intervention treatment. Similar treatment effects were observed on both milk protein and milk fat. These results indicate that cognitive-behavioral interventions that successfully target the key attitudes and behavior of stockpeople that regulate the cow's fear of humans offer the industry good opportunities to improve the productivity of cows.

Relationships between human-animal interactions and productivity of commercial dairy cows.

This study examined the relationships between a number of stockperson and cow variables at 66 commercial dairy farms. Variables such as the attitudes and behavior of stockpeople toward their cows and the behavioral response to humans and productivity of cows were studied over one lactation. There were consistent and significant correlations between some of these stockperson and cow variables. For example, a positive attitude by stockpeople toward the behavior of dairy cows was negatively correlated with the number of forceful, negative, tactile interactions used by stockpeople in handling cows (r = -0.27, df = 127, P < 0.01). Furthermore, based on farm averages, the number of forceful, negative, tactile interactions used by stockpeople was negatively correlated with the percentage of cows approaching within 1 m of an experimenter in a standard test (r = -0.27, df= 64, P< 0.05). Although not confirming a fear-productivity relationship, a moderate but nonsignificant correlation was found between flight distance of cows to an experimenter in a standard test and milk yield (r = -0.27, df = 33, P > 0.05). Support for the existence of a negative fear-productivity relationship was the finding that the use of negative interactions by stockpeople was significantly and negatively correlated with milk yield, protein, and fat at the farm (r = -0.36, -0.35 and -0.33, respectively, df = 64, P < 0.01) and was significantly and positively correlated with milk cortisol concentrations at the farm (r = 0.34, df= 64, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the percentage of cows approaching within 3 m of an experimenter in a standard test was positively correlated with conception rate to the first insemination (r = 0.38, df = 46, P < 0.01). The significant correlations found in the present study between stockperson attitudes and behavior and cow behavior and productivity, although not evidence of causal relationships, indicate the possibility of targeting these human characteristics to reduce fear responses of dairy cows to humans and improve the cows' productivity.

Human factors affecting the behaviour and productivity of commercial broiler chickens.

1. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between stockperson attitude and behaviour; bird behaviour and productivity in the chicken meat industry. 2. No relationship between stockperson attitude and behaviour was observed, which is in contrast to studies in the pig and dairy industries. 3. Evidence is provided for the existence of sequential relationships between stockperson behaviour, bird fear levels and productivity in the broiler farms examined. 4. The mechanism(s) responsible for the negative relationships between fear levels and production is unclear. It is hypothesised that chronic stress or a series of acute stress responses may be the mechanism through which fear affects productivity. 5. The relationship between human behaviour, bird fear levels and productivity indicates the potential that exists to improve productivity and perhaps welfare of commercial broilers by reducing fear levels in broiler chickens.

Bcl-2 transgenic mice with increased number of neurons have a greater learning capacity.

Transgenic mice overexpressing Bcl-2 in their neurons have an increased number of neurons. To assess whether this increased number of neurons leads to increased learning capacity we have used the Hebb-Williams maze which provides a measure of learning suitable for the study of small animals. We have demonstrated that bcl-2 transgenic mice learn faster and are more accurate in this maze. They required fewer trials to complete the maze and committed fewer errors. The transgenic mice were also faster than the wildtype mice, in particular the older mice. Prior to learning both groups of mice behaved in a similar way. These results show that bcl-2 transgene expression enhances learning capacity in mice by increasing the number of neurons.

Tail docking and beliefs about the practice in the Victorian dairy industry.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the occurrence of tail docking and beliefs about the practice in the Victorian dairy industry. DESIGN: Survey responses were analysed using chi-square tests and by correlation and regression analyses to determine associations between husbandry practices and beliefs and to identify possible predictive variables in relation to docking. PROCEDURE: A survey of the occurrence of docking and beliefs about the practice was conducted in 1997 using face-to-face interviews of 313 respondents at 234 Victorian dairy farms. RESULTS: On average, 35% of dairy farms routinely docked cattle. The practice varied from 11 to 63% in different regions and 12% of stud farms docked their cows. Rubber rings were used on 75% of farms and the average age of the cow at docking was 18 months. Twenty-two percent of cows were docked at a level above the top of the udder and 54% were docked level with the top of the udder. Respondents that docked believed that milking was finished quicker, the risks of leptospirosis for the operator and mastitis for the cow were reduced, the cows were easier to handle, fly numbers were reduced and milk quality was improved. There was a general belief that intact tails could cause significant discomfort to the operator and that docking resulted in acute but not chronic pain. CONCLUSIONS: Docking is an entrenched practice in the Victorian dairy industry. Those farmers who docked generally believed that it was a highly desirable farming practice with particular benefits for the operator.

Phase response curves to ambient temperature pulses in rats.

The effect of pulses of warm ambient temperature on the phase of activity onset in Long-Evans hooded rats, Rattus norvegicus, free-running in constant light was examined. In two experiments, rats were exposed to pulses reaching a maximum of 34 degrees C or 32 degrees C. Phase response curves were obtained with advances occurring mainly in the subjective day, and delays mainly, but not entirely, in the subjective night. Significant negative correlations between rhythm period and phase-shifts were found. There were no consistent relationships between changes in activity levels due to the temperature pulses and phase-shifts. Cycles of higher and lower ambient temperature may entrain circadian activity rhythms in mammals by daily advance or delay phase-shifts.

Daily restricted feeding effects on the circadian activity rhythms of the stripe-faced dunnart, Sminthopsis macroura.

The effect of daily restricted feeding (RF) on the circadian wheel-running activity rhythms of the stripe-faced dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura) was examined. Dunnarts were presented with a 2-h meal in the middle of the light period of a 14:10 light:dark (LD) cycle and during constant dim light (LL). No meal-anticipatory activity (AA) was observed in any of the dunnarts during the experiment. This contrasts with previous work where AA has been reported in dunnarts subjected to RF. In LL, RF acted as a weak zeitgeber for the circadian activity rhythms of the dunnart. Evidence supporting this observation was the fact that 4/8 dunnarts' activity rhythms were entrained by RF, 2 showed relative coordination, and 1 exhibited bouncing phenomenon. In other species of marsupials and in rats, it has been proposed that RF entrains a food-entrainable pacemaker, which, in turn, entrains, via coupling, the suprachiasmatic-based, light-entrainable pacemaker. The findings of the present study differ from those reported previously in that no observable AA was entrained but the light-entrainable pacemaker was entrained by RF. In the dunnart, it remains to be determined whether RF directly entrains the light-entrainable pacemaker or whether RF entrains a food-entrainable pacemaker and in turn, via coupling, the light-entrainable pacemaker.

A pilot evaluation of conductive education-based intervention for children with cerebral palsy: the Tongala project.

OBJECTIVE: To perform an objective evaluation of a programme based on conductive education (CE). METHODOLOGY: Two groups of children with cerebral palsy were studied over 6 months. Eleven children participated in a CE-based programme and nine children received traditional early intervention programmes. Videotapes of the children performing items from the Vulpe Assessment Battery (VAB) were scored by assessors blind to the treatment group. The questionnaire on resources and stress (QRS-F) was administered to the primary caregiver. RESULTS: Few statistically significant results were obtained. There was a trend for the conductive education-based group to make slightly greater gains. The videotaped measures yielded high Chronbach coefficients and high interrater correlation coefficients suggesting that this is a useful method to evaluate progress. CONCLUSIONS: The study was limited by small sample size, the nature of the control group and the lack of random assignment to CE and control groups. It did provide a basis for the development of further research in the area.

Evaluation of an early childhood programme based on principles of conductive education: the Yooralla project.

OBJECTIVE: To perform an objective evaluation of a programme based on conductive education (CE) for preschool and early school-aged children with cerebral palsy. METHODOLOGY: The progress of 17 children participating in a CE-based programme (the Yooralla programme) was compared with 17 children enrolled in traditional early childhood services. Videotapes of the children performing items from the Vulpe Assessment Battery (VAB) were scored by assessors blind to the treatment group; three standardized tests of cognitive ability were administered; and the questionnaire on resources and stress (QRS-F) was given to the primary caregiver at the beginning and conclusion of 6 months. RESULTS: The Yooralla group improved in motor performance and parental coping variables. Both groups showed improvement on the cognitive measures, with the control group demonstrating slightly greater gains. CONCLUSIONS: Conductive education may benefit the motor development of children with cerebral palsy and provide greater parental support. A randomized control study with adequate subject numbers is necessary to confirm this tentative conclusion.

The effects of exercise on the oral consumption of morphine and methadone in rats.

Endogenous opioid peptides have been hypothesised to play a regulatory role in exogenous opiate agonist dependence. It was hypothesised that exercised rats would demonstrate increased beta-endorphin (beta EP) levels and decreased exogenous opiate intake. After providing morphine or methadone as their sole liquid, drug preference levels were determined by amounts of exogenous opiate consumed when rats were offered a choice between drugged and nondrugged solutions. Treatment animals were exercised in a treadmill and were found to consume significantly less exogenous opiate than control animals. Plasma, pituitary, and whole brain beta EP levels were nonsignificantly higher in exercised animals. Differences were observed in the drug ingestion patterns of morphine- and methadone-exposed rats.

Restricted feeding entrains circadian wheel-running activity rhythms of the kowari.

The effect of daily restricted feeding (RF) on the circadian wheel-running rhythms of the kowari, Dasyuroides byrnei, was examined in two experiments. Kowaris were presented with a preferred food (determined in a pilot study) during a daily 2-h meal in the light period of a 14:10 light-dark (LD) cycle (expts 1 and 2), during constant dark (DD) immediately after termination of the LD cycle (expt 1), and during DD when kowaris were free running (expt 1). Results showed that 1) RF elicited anticipatory activity similar in duration and phasing to that observed in the rat; 2) cycles of meal-associated activity free ran for up to 6 days after the termination of RF; 3) activity persists at a phase near that of the former mealtime during periods of food deprivation; and 4) activity indicative of beating between two pacemakers occurred when feeding was restricted to the L period of LD cycles. Together these observations suggest that the activity rhythms of the kowari may be controlled by separate, but possibly coupled, light-entrainable and food-entrainable pacemakers, as are those of the rat.

Food deprivation and reinstatement phase shifts rat activity rhythms in constant light but not constant dark.

Three-day periods of food deprivation followed by reinstatement have produced phase shifts in the activity rhythms of the Australian marsupial, Sminthopsis macroura. However, no clear effects have been shown in rats. In the first of two experiments, rats in constant dark (DD) failed to show such phase shifts but when constant light (LL) was introduced it was possible to induce phase shifts. Because there was considerable disruption of activity rhythms, a second experiment was conducted using lower light levels which demonstrated clear phase shifts that were mainly phase delays late in the rats' inactive periods and advances late in the active periods. The size of the phase shifts was highly correlated with wheel-running activity levels and free-running period but not with proportional changes in activity associated with the food deprivation schedule. The results indicate that either the effects of food deprivation/reinstatement are augmented by LL or that the increased free-running period induced by LL produces larger phase shifts. Because no phase shifts at all were observed under DD, the former interpretation is preferred.

Anticipatory wheel-running in behaviorally anosmic rats.

Rats rendered behaviorally anosmic by the intranasal infusion of zinc sulfate were placed on a single daily meal, 2 hr in duration. Anosmic rats and controls showed a similar degree of wheel-running anticipatory to the meal. It was concluded that the stimulus for entrainment of meal-associated rhythmicity is not olfaction and that other characteristics of food intake need to be systematically investigated.

Phase-response curve to 1-hour light pulses for the marsupial, Dasyuroides byrnei.

Most Australian marsupials are nocturnal and consequently it might be expected that the circadian system of this group may be similar to the circadian system of nocturnal rodents. Ten male kowaris (Dasyuroides byrnei) were allowed to free-run in constant darkness and were subsequently administered 1-hour light pulses (1000 lux) at known circadian times in their cycles at intervals of greater than 2 weeks. Changes in the phase of the kowari's circadian rhythm of wheel-running were measured when their rhythms reached a new steady-state after each light pulse and these data were used to construct a phase-response curve to light for the species. The kowari PRC exhibited essentially the same characteristics as those reported for the nocturnal rodents and the marsupial species Sminthopsis macroura. It appears that the kowari entrains its circadian rhythms to light/dark cycles via the discrete phase shifting mechanism as described in nocturnal rodents.

Food-deprivation-induced phase shifts in Sminthopsis macroura froggatti.

Past research has shown that there is a circadian oscillator in laboratory rats that is entrained by restricted feeding schedules. However, in laboratory rats at least, the light-dark (LD) cycle is the dominant zeitgeber in the entrainment of wheel-running activity rhythms. Given that dasyurid marsupials are predominantly carnivorous, the episodic intake of food in the wild and the high nutritive content of that food suggest that food may be an important zeitgeber in these species. Twelve Sminthopsis macroura froggatti were presented with a daily meal at 0900 hr under an LD 12:12 cycle with lights-on at 0600 hr for 37 days. Activity in anticipation of the meal was observed in most animals. Following this, all animals were exposed to periods of 12-18 days ad lib. food interspersed with 3-day periods of deprivation--a technique used previously to demonstrate persistent meal-associated rhythms. The meal-associated activity rhythms previously observed in rats during the 3-day deprivation period were not seen, but the 3-day deprivation period produced large phase-shifts in the activity rhythms of several S.m. froggatti. It is concluded that meal feeding does not dominate the LD cycle in entraining dasyurid marsupials, but that the frequent observation of phase shifts suggests a different and, perhaps, stronger role for food intake in biological rhythmicity than has been observed previously in laboratory rats.

The effect of ambient temperature cycles upon circadian running and drinking activity in male and female laboratory rats.

The effect of a cycle of warm and cool ambient temperature (Ta) upon the free-running circadian running and drinking rhythms of male and female laboratory rats was investigated. Rats free-running in constant darkness and constant cool Ta (21 degrees C +/- 2 degrees C) were exposed to a 12:12 cycle of high (34 degrees C +/- 2 degrees C) and cool (21 degrees C +/- 2 degrees C) Ta. Three male rats and one female rat entrained to the Ta cycle. Ten of 12 male and 9 of 11 female rats exhibited post-Ta cycle phases not predictable from pre-Ta cycle phases. Most rats exhibited positive and negative masking of activity during the Ta cycle. Activity periods shortened for all rats during the Ta cycle, and male free-running periods lengthened upon cessation of the Ta cycle to values significantly greater than precycle periods. It was concluded that Ta acts as a weak zeitgeber in laboratory rats and has greater effects on males compared to females.

Psychiatric screening in the premenstrual syndrome.

Prospective daily ratings of premenstrual symptomatology were obtained from 40 women for one full menstrual cycle. Nineteen of these women were complaining of suffering from a premenstrual syndrome. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) was administered in the mid-follicular and late luteal phases of the cycle. Women who were complaining of the premenstrual syndrome showed significant premenstrual increases in premenstrual symptoms, of a magnitude that was significantly greater than those of control subjects. The GHQ scores of the women who were complaining of premenstrual syndrome were significantly higher than those of the control subjects in both the follicular and luteal phases of the cycle. The mean GHQ score of the group with premenstrual syndrome was significantly elevated above the published normal value. Fifty-six per cent of those who complained of premenstrual syndrome had follicular GHQ scores which were higher than the recommended threshold for clinical psychiatric disturbance. Only 10.5% of the control group were above this threshold. General Health Questionnaire scores were stable across phases of the cycle and were correlated to the severity of symptoms of premenstrual syndrome. Premenstrual Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire (MDQ) scores were related strongly to follicular MDQ scores. A high proportion of women who complain of premenstrual syndrome show evidence of a more general psychiatric problem which should be evaluated before therapy.