'Everywhere I call, there's nothing available': Understanding the alcohol treatment landscape and needs among unstably housed people who use alcohol in Rhode Island.

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States and people who are unstably housed are disproportionately impacted by adverse alcohol-related health outcomes. Addressing the needs of unstably housed people with high-intensity alcohol use (i.e., heavy episodic use or binge drinking), including those whose goal is not abstinence, is critical to reducing harms among this population. This study explores the alcohol-related treatment and support needs among unstably housed people who use alcohol. METHODS: Data collection included participant observation and semi-structured interviews (n = 25) with unstably housed people with high-intensity alcohol use. Data were analysed thematically, with attention to structural vulnerability and social-structural forces at shaping perceptions of and experiences with alcohol treatment. RESULTS: Participants underscored how housing instability was critical in precipitating and maintaining heavy alcohol use, with alcohol often used to manage the stress and anxiety related to housing instability. While participants regularly engaged with alcohol treatment programs, program design and barriers to access undermined the effectiveness of these services for participants. Participants described the need for a range of program and service options across a continuum of care to be implemented to support participants in meeting their diverse needs and identified goals regarding alcohol use. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol treatment and supports need to be modified so that they include a range of harm reduction and abstinence-based models to better meet people's diverse needs. Furthermore, treatment must be paired with permanent and affordable housing to address underlying drivers of alcohol-related harm for unstably housed people.

"It gets you high as a kite but not unsick": Characterizations of and responses to a changing local drug supply by people who use drugs in Rhode Island.

BACKGROUND: The North American overdose crisis has continued at unprecedented rates with more than 100,000 overdose deaths occurring in the United States (US) in 2022. Overdose deaths have increasingly been polysubstance-involved, with novel substances (e.g., xylazine) complicating overdose risk and health outcomes. Understanding the effects of-and responses to-a changing drug supply among people who use drugs is critical to modifying harm reduction strategies to be more responsive to people's needs. METHODS: This qualitative study draws on data collected from May to December 2022 in Rhode Island. Data include in-depth interviews with 50 people who use drugs and observational fieldwork in spaces frequented by participants (e.g., encampments, drop-in centers). Qualitative data were analyzed thematically drawing on concepts of situated rationality. RESULTS: Participants described significant changes in the drug supply, with many attributing these transitions to COVID-19. Most participants characterized the local supply as "synthetic" with textures, color, and taste evolving. Notably, participants emphasized adverse outcomes related to available supplies, including during use (e.g., intense burning sensations) and post-consumption (e.g., heavy sedation, ongoing withdrawal, necrosis). Given the complex supply, participants highlighted the increased risk of overdose and shared how they altered their use practices to manage evolving health risks. CONCLUSION: Our results underscore how people who use drugs characterized the local drug supply, including perceived changes to supply contents. Implementing and scaling up harm reduction interventions that reduce risk and reinforce the agency of people who use drugs are urgently needed to effectively address the overdose crisis.

"Make yourself un-NIMBY-able": stakeholder perspectives on strategies to mobilize public and political support for overdose prevention centers in the United States of America.

BACKGROUND: Overdose prevention centers (OPCs), also known as supervised injection facilities and safe consumption sites, are evidenced-based interventions for preventing overdose deaths and drug-related morbidities. The pathways to legalizing OPCs in the USA have confronted multiple social, political, and legal obstacles. We conducted a multi-site, qualitative study to explore heterogeneities in these pathways in four jurisdictions, as well as to understand stakeholder perspectives on valuable strategies for galvanizing political and public support for OPCs. METHODS: From July 2022 to February 2023, we conducted 17 semi-structured, in-depth interviews with OPC policymakers, service providers, advocates, and researchers from California, New York City, Philadelphia, and Rhode Island, where efforts have been undertaken to authorize OPCs. Using inductive thematic analysis, we identified and compared contextually relevant, salient approaches for increasing support for OPCs. RESULTS: Participants described several strategies clustering around five distinct domains: (1) embedding OPC advocacy into broader overdose prevention coalitions to shape policy dialogs; (2) building rapport with a plurality of powerbrokers (e.g., lawmakers, health departments, law enforcement) who could amplify the impact of OPC advocacy; (3) emphasizing specific benefits of OPCs to different audiences in different contexts; (4) leveraging relationships with frontline workers (e.g., emergency medicine and substance use treatment providers) to challenge OPC opposition, including 'NIMBY-ism,' and misinformation; and (5) prioritizing transparency in OPC decision-making to foster public trust. CONCLUSION: While tailored to the specific socio-political context of each locality, multiple OPC advocacy strategies have been deployed to cultivate support for OPCs in the USA. Advocacy strategies that are multi-pronged, leverage partnerships with stakeholders at multiple levels, and tailor communications to different audiences and settings could yield the greatest impact in increasing support for, and diffusing opposition to, future OPC implementation.

Understanding the delivery of substance use treatment services to transgender and gender-diverse people: Findings from a mixed-methods study of healthcare professionals.

BACKGROUND: Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people who use drugs report barriers to accessing substance use treatment, including provider mistreatment. Little research has explored the multilevel factors that shape the capacity of substance use treatment professionals to provide gender-affirmative care (i.e., care that respects and affirms one's gender) to TGD people. METHODS: From October 2021 to March 2022, substance use treatment and harm reduction professionals in Rhode Island were surveyed (N = 101) and qualitatively interviewed (N = 19) about the provision of substance use treatment-related services to TGD people. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively; differences were examined using Fisher exact tests (p < 0.05). Qualitative interviews were coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Participants reported limited exposure to TGD people and lacked training on TGD health, which resulted in limited cultural and clinical competency and low self-efficacy in their ability to care for TGD people. Participants also highlighted structural factors (e.g., non-inclusive intake forms, limited availability of gender-inclusive ancillary community services) that restricted their ability to provide effective and affirming care to TGD people. Some participants also reported a "gender blind" ethos at their institutions- described by some as ignoring the potential impact of TGD peoples' unique experiences on their substance use and ability to benefit from treatment. While some perceived gender blindness as problematic, others believed this approach enabled substance use treatment professionals to consider all the identities and needs that patients/clients may have. Despite differences in treatment approaches, most participants agreed that their workplaces could benefit from efforts to create a safe and affirming space for people who use drugs, particularly TGD patients/clients. CONCLUSION: Results underscore how structural, interpersonal, and individual factors contributed to barriers in the provision of gender-affirmative substance use-related care for TGD people. Findings can inform efforts to increase the capacity of providers to deliver gender-affirmative substance use-related services, which is essential to supporting the recovery goals of TGD people.

"I Don't Go Overboard": Perceptions of Overdose Risk and Risk Reduction Strategies among People Who Use Drugs in Rhode Island.

Background: North America experiencing an unprecedented overdose epidemic, with data estimating almost 110,000 overdose deaths occurring in 2022 in the United States (US). To address fatal overdoses in the US, community organizations and local health departments in some jurisdictions have expanded community distribution of naloxone, and increased overdose prevention education, and other harm reduction supplies and services (e.g., fentanyl test strips, drug checking programs) to reduce harm for people who use drugs (PWUD). Objectives: Understanding how PWUD manage overdose risk within the context of these expanded services is important for ensuring public health services are meeting their needs. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 25 PWUD who were accessing harm reduction services in Rhode Island. Data were imported into NVivo where they were coded and analyzed thematically. Results: Our findings demonstrate the complexity of managing overdose risk in the context of a fentanyl drug supply. While most participants were concerned about overdosing, they sought to manage overdose risk through their own harm reduction practices (e.g., testing their drugs, going slow) and drug purchasing dynamics, even when using alone. Conclusions: Study findings point to the need to implement and scale-up community-level interventions to better support PWUD within the context of the current US overdose crisis.

Integrating long-acting injectable treatment to improve medication adherence among persons living with HIV and opioid use disorder: study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Oral antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been effective at reducing mortality rates of people with HIV. However, despite its effectiveness, people who use drugs face barriers to maintaining ART adherence. Receipt of opioid agonist treatment, in the context of HIV care, is associated with medication adherence and decreased HIV viral loads. Recent pharmacological advancements have led to the development of novel long-acting, injectable, medications for both HIV (cabotegravir co-administered with rilpivirine) and OUD (extended-release buprenorphine). These therapies have the potential to dramatically improve adherence by eliminating the need for daily pill-taking. Despite the extensive evidence base supporting long-acting injectable medications for both HIV and OUD, and clinical guidelines supporting integrated care provision, currently little is known about how these medications may be optimally delivered to this population. This paper presents the study design for the development of a clinical protocol to guide the delivery of combined treatment for HIV and OUD using long-acting injectable medications. METHODS: The study aims are to: (1) develop a clinical protocol to guide the delivery of combined LAI for HIV and OUD by conducting in-depth interviews with prospective patients, clinical content experts, and other key stakeholders; and (2) conduct This single group, open pilot trial protocol to assess feasibility, acceptability, and safety among patients diagnosed with HIV and OUD. Throughout all phases of the study, information on patient-, provider-, and organizational-level variables will be collected to inform future implementation. DISCUSSION: Findings from this study will inform the development of a future study to conduct a fully-powered Hybrid Type 1 Effectiveness-Implementation design.

Perceptions of Long-Acting Injectable Antiretroviral Therapy Among People Living with HIV Who Use Drugs and Service Providers: a Qualitative Analysis in Rhode Island.

Long-acting injectable antiretroviral therapy (LAI-ART) is a novel method to deliver HIV treatment, and the first regimen was approved in the USA in 2021. LAI-ART may mitigate barriers to oral treatment adherence, but little is known about LAI-ART perceptions among people living with HIV (PLWH) who use drugs, despite these populations facing greater barriers to treatment retention and ART adherence. We assessed LAI-ART perceptions and implementation considerations among PLWH who use drugs and health and ancillary service providers in Rhode Island. Data was collected from November 2021 to September 2022, and include in-depth interviews with 15 PLWH who use drugs and two focus groups with HIV clinical providers (n = 8) and ancillary service providers (n = 5) working with PLWH who use drugs. Data were analyzed thematically, with attention paid to how levels of structural vulnerability and social-structural environments shaped participants' LAI-ART perceptions and the HIV care continuum. Willingness to consider LAI-ART was impacted by HIV outcomes (e.g., viral suppression) and previous experiences with oral regimens, with those on stable regimens reluctant to consider alternative therapies. However, LAI-ART was seen as potentially improving HIV outcomes for PLWH who use drugs and enhancing people's quality of life by reducing stress related to daily pill-taking. Recommendations for optimal implementation of LAI-ART varied across participants and included decentralized approaches to delivery. HIV care delivery must consider the needs of PLWH who use drugs. Developing patient-centered and community-based delivery approaches to LAI-ART may address adherence challenges specific to PLWH who use drugs.

Cannabis Use Patterns and Whole-Blood Cannabinoid Profiles of Emergency Department Patients With Suspected Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to characterize the detailed cannabis use patterns (eg, frequency, mode, and product) and determine the differences in the whole-blood cannabinoid profiles during symptomatic versus asymptomatic periods of participants with suspected cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome recruited from the emergency department (ED) during a symptomatic episode. METHODS: This is a prospective observational cohort study of participants with symptomatic cyclic vomiting onset after chronic cannabis use. Standardized assessments were conducted to evaluate for lifetime and recent cannabis use, cannabis use disorder, and cannabis withdrawal symptoms. Quantitative whole-blood cannabinoid testing was performed at 2 times, first when symptomatic (ie, baseline) and at least 2 weeks after the ED visit when asymptomatic. The differences in cannabinoid concentrations were compared between symptomatic and asymptomatic testing. The study was conducted from September 2021 to August 2022. RESULTS: There was a difference observed between delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolites, but not the parent compound during symptomatic episodes and asymptomatic periods. Most participants (84%) reported using cannabis > once per day (median 3 times per day on weekdays, 4 times per day on weekends). Hazardous cannabis use was universal among participants; the mean cannabis withdrawal discomfort score was 13, indicating clinically significant rates of cannabis withdrawal symptoms with cessation of use. Most participants (79%) previously tried to stop cannabis use, but a few (13%) of them had sought treatment. CONCLUSION: Patients presenting to the ED with cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome have high cannabis use disorder scores. Further studies are needed to better understand the influence of THC metabolism and concentrations on symptomatic cyclic vomiting.

Comprehensive testing and rapid dissemination of local drug supply surveillance data in Rhode Island.

BACKGROUND: The North American overdose crisis has continued at unprecedented rates with more than 100,000 overdose deaths estimated to have occurred in the United States in 2022. Regional variations in overdose rates signify differences in local drug supplies. State-level drug supply surveillance systems have been limited in their ability to document and communicate the rapidly changing drug supplies which can hinder harm reduction efforts at the community level. We sought to address by piloting a two-year, community-engaged local drug supply surveillance program in Rhode Island (RI). METHODS: The first set of samples (n = 125) were collected from May 2022 to January 2023 across RI and included used paraphernalia (e.g., cookers), refuse (e.g., baggies), and product. Samples were tested using comprehensive toxicology testing approaches via liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Results were disseminated to participants and the broader public across platforms. RESULTS: Fentanyl was detected in 67.2% of all samples tested. 39.2% (n = 49) of samples were expected to be fentanyl. Xylazine was detected in 41.6% of all samples-always in combination with fentanyl-and no samples were expected to contain xylazine. In expected stimulant samples (n = 39), 10% contained fentanyl and/or analogues as major substances and 30.8% contained trace amounts of fentanyl and/or analogues. In expected stimulant samples, 15.4% contained xylazine with fentanyl. No opioids or benzodiazepines were detected in expected hallucinogen or dissociative samples (n = 7). In expected benzodiazepine samples (n = 8), no opioids were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Our results describe part of the local drug supply in Rhode Island, including a presence of NPS and adulterants (e.g., designer benzodiazepines, xylazine). Importantly, our findings underscore the feasibility of developing a community-driven drug supply surveillance database. Expanding drug supply surveillance initiatives is imperative for improving the health and safety of people who use drugs and informing public health approaches to addressing the overdose crisis.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: clinical trajectories and patterns of use three months following a visit to the emergency department.

OBJECTIVES: Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is a clinical condition of cyclic vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain associated with chronic cannabis use. Despite increased recognition of CHS, there are limited details on cannabis use practices and symptoms over time. Understanding what happens in the period surrounding the ED visit, including any changes in symptoms and cannabis use practices following the visit, can help inform the development of patient-centered interventions around cannabis use disorder for patients with CHS. METHODS: A prospective observational cohort (n=39) of patients with suspected CHS recruited from the Emergency Department (ED) at the time of a symptomatic cyclic vomiting episode was followed for three months. Disease progression, cannabis use practices, and health care utilization were monitored. RESULTS: Participants reported high rates of persistent CHS symptoms (abdominal pain, nausea, or cyclic vomiting) in the two-week period immediately following an ED visit with a median duration of 7 days. Cannabis use frequency and quantity were reduced immediately after the ED visit, but most participants returned to pre-ED visit cannabis use patterns within a few days. Recurrent ED visits for cyclic vomiting were reported by 25% of participants who completed follow-up during the three month follow up period. CONCLUSIONS: Participants continued to have ongoing symptoms after the ED visit, but most manage symptoms on their own and do not return to the ED. Longitudinal studies beyond three months are needed to better understand the clinical course of patients with suspected CHS.

An analysis of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome Reddit posts and themes.

INTRODUCTION: Reddit hosts a large active community of members dedicated to the discussion of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. We sought to describe common themes discussed and the most frequently mentioned triggers and therapies for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome exacerbations in the Reddit online community. METHODS: Data collected from six subreddits were filtered using natural language processing to curate posts referencing cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. Based on a manual review of posts, common themes were identified. A machine learning model was trained using the manually categorized data to automatically classify the themes for the rest of the posts so that their distributions could be quantified. RESULTS: From August 2018 to November 2022, 2683 unique posts were collected. Thematic analysis resulted in five overall themes: cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome-related science; symptom timing; cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome treatment and prevention; cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome diagnosis and education; and health impacts. Additionally, 447 trigger and 664 therapy-related posts were identified. The most commonly mentioned triggers for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome episodes included: food and drink (n = 62), cannabinoids (n = 45), mental health (e.g., stress, anxiety) (n = 27), and alcohol (n = 22). Most commonly mentioned cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome therapies included: hot water/bathing (n = 62), hydration (n = 60), antiemetics (n = 42), food and drink (n = 38), gastrointestinal medications (n = 38), behavioral therapies (e.g., meditation, yoga) (n = 35), and capsaicin (n = 29). DISCUSSION: Reddit posts for cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome provide a valuable source of community discussion and individual reports of people experiencing cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. Mental health and alcohol were frequently reported triggers within the posts but are not often identified in the literature. While many of the therapies mentioned are well documented, behavioral responses such as meditation and yoga have not been explored by the scientific literature. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge shared via online social media platforms contains detailed information on self-reported cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome disease and management experiences, which could serve as valuable data for the development of treatment strategies. Further longitudinal studies in patients with cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome are needed to corroborate these findings.

Experiences of patients at high risk of opioid overdose accessing emergency department and behavioral health interventions: a qualitative analysis in an urban emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Emergency Departments (EDs) have become critical 'touchpoints' for the identification and early engagement of patients at risk of overdose or who have an opioid use disorder (OUD). Our objectives were to examine patients' ED experiences, identify barriers and facilitators of service uptake in ED settings, and explore patients' experiences with ED staff. METHODS: This qualitative study was part of a randomized controlled trial that evaluated the effectiveness of clinical social workers and certified peer recovery specialists in increasing treatment uptake and reducing opioid overdose rates for people with OUD. Between September 2019 and March 2020, semi-structured interviews were conducted 19 participants from the trial. Interviews sought to assess participants' ED care experiences across intervention type (i.e., clinical social worker or peer recovery specialist). Participants were purposively sampled across intervention arm (social work, n = 11; peer recovery specialist, n = 7; control, n = 1). Data were analyzed thematically with a focus on participant experiences in the ED and social and structural factors shaping care experiences and service utilization. RESULTS: Participants reported varied ED experiences, including instances of discrimination and stigma due to their substance use. However, participants underscored the need for increased engagement of people with lived experience in ED settings, including the use of peer recovery specialists. Participants highlighted that ED provider interactions were critical drivers of shaping care and service utilization and needed to be improved across EDs to improve post-overdose care. CONCLUSIONS: While the ED provides an opportunity to reach patients at risk of overdose, our results demonstrate how ED-based interactions and service provision can impact ED care engagement and service utilization. Modifications to care delivery may improve experiences for patients with OUD or at high risk for overdose. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical trial registration: NCT03684681.

"It's no foundation, there's no stabilization, you're just scattered": A qualitative study of the institutional circuit of recently-evicted people who use drugs.

People who use drugs (PWUD) commonly experience housing instability due to intersecting structural vulnerabilities (e.g., drug prohibition, discriminatory housing policies), and prejudicial or illegal evictions are common. In Vancouver, Canada, evictions have proliferated in the Downtown Eastside, a historically low-income neighbourhood with high rates of drug use and housing instability, resulting in many PWUD being evicted into homelessness. This study characterizes housing trajectories of recently-evicted PWUD through the lens of the institutional circuit of homelessness, and explores how wider contexts of structural vulnerability shape experiences within this. Qualitative interviews were conducted with PWUD recently evicted in the Downtown Eastside (<60 days). Peer research assistants recruited 58 PWUD through outreach activities. All PWUD participated in baseline interviews on the causes and contexts of evictions. Follow-up interviews were completed with 41 participants 3-6 months later, focusing on longer-term impacts of eviction, including housing trajectories. Most participants were evicted into homelessness, remaining so at follow-up. Participants described patterns of residential instability consisting of frequent cycling between shelters, streets, and kin-based networks. While participants normalized this cycling as characteristic of their marginalized social positions, narratives revealed how the demands of the institutional circuit deepened vulnerabilities and prolonged experiences of homelessness. Experiences were framed by participants' (in)ability to navigate survival needs (e.g., shelter, drug use), with tensions and trade-offs between needs increasing participants' and their peers' risks of harms. Constructions of agency further shaped experiences; accounts highlighted tensions between the control inherent to indoor spaces and participants' need for autonomy. Findings demonstrate how the demands of the institutional circuit foregrounded structural vulnerabilities to perpetuate cycles of instability. Interventions that address survival needs and preserve agency will be necessary to mitigate risks within the institutional circuit, in tandem with upstream interventions that target housing vulnerability and broader social-structural conditions (e.g., poverty, affordability) that entrap recently-evicted PWUD in the institutional circuit.

Women who use drugs: engagement in practices of harm reduction care.

BACKGROUND: Harm reduction services that employ or are operated by people who use drugs are an effective means of mitigating overdose risks and other drug-related harms. However, stereotypes portraying people who use criminalized drugs as incapable caregivers persist. This is especially true for women who use drugs, and to a greater extent racialized women, who are characterized as having diverged from traditional ideals of womanhood as a result of drug-user stigma and the intersections of gender- and class-based and racist stereotypes. In an effort to identify and understand how women who use drugs practise care through harm reduction, we explored the experiences of women accessing a low-threshold supervised consumption site exclusively for women (transgender and non-binary inclusive) in Vancouver, Canada. METHODS: Data were drawn from research conducted from May 2017 to June 2018 exploring women's experiences accessing the supervised consumption site during an overdose crisis. Data included forty-five semistructured interviews with women recruited from the site, analysed thematically to explore practices of care through harm reduction. FINDINGS: Participants reported engaging in both formal and informal care. Acts of care included interventions that both aligned with and deviated from conventional understandings of care practices, including overdose reversal and education, overdose supervision/care, and assisted injection. CONCLUSION: The boundary between formal and informal harm reduction care is fluid. Women who use drugs engage in harm reduction across these borders with acts of care that align with or fill the gaps in current harm reduction services in order to meet the needs of drug-using communities, challenging negative stereotypes of women who use drugs. However, these caregiving practices can increase risks to care providers' physical, mental, and emotional health and wellness. Increased financial, social, and institutional supports, including safer supply, assisted injection, and community resources, are needed to better support women as they continue to engage in harm reduction care.

"I still partly think this is bullshit": A qualitative analysis of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome perceptions among people with chronic cannabis use and cyclic vomiting.

BACKGROUND: Cannabis is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the United States (US), with reported use patterns increasing among adults in recent years. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) has been one concern related to increased cannabis use patterns. US emergency departments have reported an increase of CHS cases over the last decade, yet little is known about CHS. This study explores the experiences of people with chronic cannabis use and cyclic vomiting and their perceptions of CHS. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 people recruited from a prospective cohort of patients presenting to Rhode Island emergency departments with symptomatic cyclic vomiting and chronic cannabis use. Data were analyzed thematically using NVivo. FINDINGS: Participants characterized their cyclic vomiting as related to food and alcohol consumption patterns, stress, and existing gastrointestinal issues. Despite recurrent episodes of cyclic vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain, many participants remained uncertain whether their symptoms were driven by cannabis. Many participants relied on at-home research to assess their symptoms and seek out management approaches. Clinical treatment recommendations focused on cannabis cessation. However, most participants felt clinical recommendations failed to consider the complexity and challenge of stopping cannabis use given the chronicity of use and therapeutic benefits some perceived cannabis to have. CONCLUSIONS: Although cannabis cessation is the only reported CHS cure to date, additional clinical and non-clinical treatment approaches are needed to better support people with chronic cannabis use and cyclic vomiting to meet their ongoing needs.

Multi-level influences on increased overdose risk behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic among people who use drugs in Rhode Island: a qualitative investigation.

BACKGROUND: The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected structurally vulnerable populations including people who use drugs (PWUD). Increased overdose risk behaviors among PWUD during the pandemic have been documented, with research underscoring the role of influencing factors such as isolation and job loss in these behaviors. Here, we use qualitative methods to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and pandemic-related response measures on drug use behaviors in a sample of PWUD in Rhode Island. Using a social-ecological framework, we highlight the nested, interactive levels of the pandemic's influence on increased overdose risk behaviors. METHODS: From July to October 2021, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 PWUD who self-reported any increase in behaviors associated with overdose risk (e.g., increased use, change in drug type and/or more solitary drug use) relative to before the pandemic. Thematic analysis was conducted using a codebook with salient themes identified from interview guides and those that emerged through close reading of transcribed interviews. Guided by a social-ecological framework, themes were grouped into individual, network, institutional, and policy-level influences of the pandemic on drug use behaviors. RESULTS: Individual-level influences on increased overdose risk behaviors included self-reported anxiety and depression, isolation and loneliness, and boredom. Network-level influences included changes in local drug supply and changes in social network composition specific to housing. At the institutional level, drug use patterns were influenced by reduced access to harm reduction or treatment services. At the policy level, increased overdose risk behaviors were related to financial changes, job loss, and business closures. All participants identified factors influencing overdose risk behaviors that corresponded to several nested social-ecological levels. CONCLUSIONS: Participants identified multi-level influences of the COVID-19 pandemic and pandemic-related response measures on their drug use behavior patterns and overdose risk. These findings suggest that effective harm reduction during large-scale crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, must address several levels of influence concurrently.

Characteristics of events in which police responded to overdoses: an examination of incident reports in Rhode Island.

BACKGROUND: Narrow or non-existent Good Samaritan Law protections and harsh drug selling statutes in the USA have been shown to deter bystanders from seeking medical assistance for overdoses. Additionally, little is known about the actions that police take when responding to overdose events. The objectives of this study were to assess the prevalence and correlates of naloxone administration by police, as well as to examine overdose events where arrests were made and those in which the person who overdosed was described as combative. METHODS: We analyzed incident reports of police responding to an overdose between September 1, 2019, and August 31, 2020 (i.e., 6 months prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic), from a city in Rhode Island. We examined characteristics of incidents, as well as individual characteristics of the person who overdosed. Correlates of police naloxone administration were assessed using Wilcoxon rank sum tests and Fisher's exact tests, and we examined incidents where arrests occurred and incidents in which the person who overdosed was described as combative descriptively. RESULTS: Among the 211 incidents in which police responded to an overdose during the study period, we found that police administered naloxone in approximately 10% of incidents. In most incidents, police were the last group of first responders to arrive on scene (59%), and most often, naloxone was administered by others (65%). Police were significantly more likely to administer naloxone when they were the first professionals to arrive, when naloxone had not been administered by others, and when the overdose occurred in public or in a vehicle. Arrests at overdose events were rarely reported (1%), and people who overdosed were rarely (1%) documented in incident reports as being 'combative.' CONCLUSIONS: Considering these findings, ideally, all jurisdictions should have sufficient first responder staffing and resources to ensure a rapid response to overdose events, with police rarely or never dispatched to respond to overdoses. However, until this ideal can be achieved, any available responders should be dispatched concurrently, with police instructed to resume patrol once other professional responders arrive on scene; additionally, warrant searches of persons on scene should be prohibited.

"That's what I'm supposed to do at work": Gendered labor, self-care, and overdose risk among women who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada.

Through rapid ethnography undertaken in Vancouver, Canada's Downtown Eastside - one of Canada's overdose epicenters - this article examines how gendered expectations of labor shape overdose risk for structurally vulnerable women and gender diverse people who use drugs. Drawing on two participant narratives, we explore how structural, symbolic, and everyday violence frame the lives of women and gender diverse people who use drugs in ways that drive their overdose risk as they balance self-care with caretaking, paid work, and basic survival. This article underscores the need for structural reform of peer overdose response work and funding for gender-attentive harm reduction and ancillary supports to better mitigate overdose risk for these populations.

Drug use behaviors, trauma, and emotional affect following the overdose of a social network member: A qualitative investigation.

BACKGROUND: Scant research has examined the influence of overdoses occurring in social networks (i.e., knowing someone who has overdosed) on individual overdose risk. We sought to characterize drug use behaviors of individuals following the overdose of someone in their social network. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 25 people who use drugs and knew someone who overdosed in the prior 90 days. All interviews were conducted in person in Rhode Island from July to October 2021. Data were stratified by drug use behaviors following the overdose of a network member (i.e., risk behaviors, protective behaviors, no change; selected a priori) and analyzed using a thematic analysis variation to identify salient themes. RESULTS: We identified variation in the effect of knowing someone who overdosed on subsequent drug use behaviors and emotional affect. Several participants described increasing their drug use or using more types of drugs than usual to manage feelings of bereavement and trauma, and a subset of these participants described increased drug use with suicidal intention and increased suicidal ideations following the overdose event. Other participants described reducing their drug use and engaging in protective behaviors in response to heightened perceived overdose risk, protection motivation (i.e., increased motivation to protect oneself), and concern for others. Additionally, some participants reported no change in drug use behaviors, and these participants described already engaging in harm reduction practices, feeling desensitized due to frequent or repeated exposure to overdose, and ambivalence about living. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest a need for enhanced investment in network-based overdose prevention interventions, as well as more robust integration of bereavement support and mental health services in settings that serve people who use drugs. The findings also suggest a need for future research to identify mediators of the effect of overdose occurring in social networks on individual overdose risk.