The meaning of guilt: Reconciling the past to inform the future.

Despite decades of empirical research, a deceptively simple question remains unanswered: Is guilt good? Whereas some researchers assert that routine experiences of guilt (i.e., "trait guilt") are maladaptive and indicative of poor psychological adjustment, others assert trait guilt to be adaptive and indicative of a prosocial disposition. In the current research we outline the theoretical underpinnings of 2 of the most commonly employed measures of trait guilt: unsituated measures (e.g., the Personal Feelings Questionnaire (PFQ; Harder & Lewis, 1987) and situated scenario-based measures (e.g., the Test of Self-Conscious Affect [TOSCA]; Tangney, Wagner, & Gramzow, 1989). We examine the construct validity of both measure types across 3 studies using a variety of traits (self- and informant-reported), states, and behaviors. Results provide overwhelming support for a "2-construct" argument, with PFQ guilt (our unsituated measure of choice) and TOSCA guilt (our situated measure of choice) displaying divergent results across nearly all traits, states, and behaviors measured. While the correlates of PFQ guilt were consistently maladaptive, the correlates of TOSCA guilt were consistently adaptive. Furthermore, only the PFQ predicted daily experiences of negative affect and state guilt. TOSCA guilt was unrelated to negative affective experience in daily life, thereby calling into question its conceptualization as an affective trait. Findings using the TOSCA and PFQ shame scales are also presented. We conclude by presenting a preliminary process model of guilt that may have utility for designing future research studies and developing new guilt questionnaires. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Interpersonal Adaptiveness of Dispositional Guilt and Shame: A Meta-Analytic Investigation.

Despite decades of empirical research, conclusions regarding the adaptiveness of dispositional guilt and shame are mixed. We use meta-analysis to summarize the empirical literature and clarify these ambiguities. Specifically, we evaluate how guilt and shame are uniquely related to pro-social orientation and, in doing so, highlight the substantial yet under-acknowledged impact of researchers' methodological choices. A series of meta-analyses was conducted investigating the relationship between dispositional guilt (or shame) and pro-social orientation. Two main methodological moderators of interest were tested: test format (scenario vs. checklist) and statistical analysis (semi-partial vs. zero-order correlations). Among studies employing zero-order correlations, dispositional guilt was positively correlated with pro-social orientation (k = 63, Mr = .13, p < .001), whereas dispositional shame was negatively correlated, (k = 47, Mr = -.05, p = .07). Test format was a significant moderator for guilt studies only, with scenario measures producing significantly stronger effects. Semi-partial correlations resulted in significantly stronger effects among guilt and shame studies. Although dispositional guilt and shame are differentially related to pro-social orientation, such relationships depend largely on the methodological choices of the researcher, particularly in the case of guilt. Implications for the study of these traits are discussed.

Accuracy of Judging Affect and Accuracy of Judging Personality: How and When Are They Related?

OBJECTIVES: The present research is concerned with the relation between accuracy in judging targets' affective states and accuracy in judging the same targets' personality traits. In two studies, we test the link between these two types of accuracy with the prediction that accuracy of judging traits and of judging states will be associated when fundamental affective qualities are shared. METHOD: In Study 1, affective states and personality traits of 29 targets were rated by 124 judges whose individual accuracy was scored as the correlation between their ratings and target criterion scores (across targets). In Study 2, a comparable analysis was done using 30 different targets and 330 different judges. RESULTS: Accuracy in judging distressed affect was significantly positively correlated with accuracy in judging Neuroticism in both studies, as well as in a meta-analysis across the two studies. Accuracy in judging positive affect was significantly positively correlated with accuracy in judging Extraversion in one of the two studies, with the meta-analysis across the two studies being significant. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide preliminary evidence for a new model (State and Trait Accuracy Model) that outlines when concordance in accuracy across traits and states should be expected.

Narcissism and other-derogation in the absence of ego threat.

The relation between narcissism and other-derogation has been examined primarily in the context of ego threat. In three studies, we investigated whether narcissistic individuals derogate others in the absence of ego threat. In Study 1, 79 judges watched four videotaped dyadic interactions and rated the personality of the same four people. In Study 2, 66 judges rated the personality of a friend. In Study 3, 72 judges considered the average Northeastern University student and rated the personality of this hypothetical person. Across the three studies, targets' personality characteristics were described on the 100-item California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ; Block, 2008). Judges' ratings of targets were compared to a CAQ prototype of the optimally adjusted person to assess target-derogation. Judges' narcissism and other-derogation were positively related in Studies 1 and 2. Narcissism positively predicted and self-esteem negatively predicted target-derogation after controlling for each other in Study 3. Narcissistic individuals derogate others more than non-narcissistic individuals regardless of whether ego threat is present or absent.

Narcissism and discrepancy between self and friends' perceptions of personality.

Most research on narcissism and person perception has used strangers as perceivers. However, research has demonstrated that strangers' ratings are influenced by narcissists' stylish appearance (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2010). In the present study, we recruited participants and their close friends, individuals whose close relationship should immunize them to participants' superficial appearance cues. We investigated the relation between narcissism and personality ratings by self and friends. Participants (N = 66; 38 women; Mage = 20.83 years) completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988) and described their personality on the 100-item California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ; Block, 2008). Participants' personality was also described on the CAQ by close friends. The "optimally adjusted individual" prototype was used to summarize participant and friend personality ratings (Block, 2008). Participants with high narcissism scores were ascribed higher optimal adjustment by self than by friends. Narcissistic individuals' self-ratings were extremely positive and more favorable than friends' ratings of them.

A relationship between tolerance of blur and personality.

PURPOSE: To determine whether tolerance of dioptric spherical defocus is related to measures of personality. Clinical observations suggest that there is individual variability in tolerance of blur. METHODS: A computer-controlled Badal optometer was used to measure just-noticeable blur and just-objectionable blur responses to positive lens defocus. Blur tolerance was defined as the difference between these two responses. A personality battery was administered consisting of the NEO-FFI (Neuroticism-Extroversion-Openness-Five Factor Inventory) and the California Adult Q-sort (general measures), as well as individual measures (hypothesis-driven scales) of perfectionism, neuroticism, highly sensitive person, ego resiliency, need for structure, and negative emotionality. Ninety-nine normally sighted subjects (median age, 21 years, median refractive error 0.6 DS) completed both parts of the study. RESULTS: Within-subject blur tolerance measures with three different pupil sizes correlated highly (r(s) = 0.79-0.86), implying good repeatability. There was a wide range of individual blur tolerance (0.0-2.7 D). The personality questionnaires exhibited acceptable reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.67-0.91). Two perfectionism scales correlated significantly with blur tolerance (r = 0.25 and 0.27). The 15 questionnaire items that correlated most with blur tolerance were factor analyzed and yielded two conceptually meaningful factors (both α = 0.76). The "low self confidence" and "disorganization" factors correlated positively with blur tolerance (r = 0.38 and 0.36, respectively) and their composite correlated with blur tolerance (r = 0.46). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide the first evidence of a relationship between personality and tolerance of blur. Tolerance of blur may be related to perception of image quality. If so, personality may influence refractive error correction and development and other choices that are made when presented with degraded images.

Assessment of accurate self-knowledge.

Despite ongoing theoretical interest in the accuracy of self-knowledge and its implications for mental health, few researchers have yet to tackle this topic directly. This may be due, in part, to several factors that make assessing individual differences in accurate self-knowledge especially difficult. In this article, we present a method for the assessment of accurate self-knowledge that relies on information gathered from the self, knowledgeable others, and observations of behavior in the laboratory, and we provide psychometric support for this newly developed assessment procedure. Specifically, we present evidence for internal consistency reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and criterion-related validity. Other researchers interested in studying the accuracy of self-knowledge might wish to adopt this procedure in their own research endeavors.

Interpersonal orientation and the accuracy of personality judgments.

Are those who are more invested in developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships able to provide more accurate judgments of others' personality characteristics? Previous research has produced mixed findings. In the present study, a conceptual framework was presented and methods were used that overcome many of the problems encountered in past research on judgmental accuracy. On four occasions, 102 judges watched a 12-min videotaped dyadic interaction and described the personality of a designated target person. Judges' personality characteristics were described by self, parents, and friends. Results revealed that psychological communion was positively associated with judges' accuracy in rating targets' personality characteristics. In addition, whereas women were more communal and provided more accurate judgments than men, the relationship between communion and accuracy held after controlling for the effect of gender. Finally, preliminary findings suggested that interpersonally oriented individuals may sometimes draw on information about themselves and about stereotypical others to facilitate accurate judgments of others.