A longitudinal analysis of COVID-19 prevention strategies implemented among US K-12 public schools during the 2021-2022 school year.

PURPOSE: Examine how school-based COVID-19 prevention strategy implementation varied over time, including by local characteristics. METHODS: School administrators (n=335) from a nationally representative sample of K-12 public schools completed four surveys assessing COVID-19 prevention strategies at two-month intervals between October 2021 and June 2022. We calculated weighted prevalence estimates by survey wave. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to model longitudinal changes in strategy implementation, accounting for school and county covariates. RESULTS: Opening doors/windows, daily cleaning, and diagnostic testing were reported by ≥50% of schools at each survey wave. Several strategies were consistently implemented across the 2021-2022 school year (i.e., daily cleaning, opening doors and windows, diagnostic testing) while other strategies increased initially and then declined (i.e., contact tracing, screening testing, on-campus vaccination) or declined consistently throughout the school year (i.e., mask requirement, classroom distancing, quarantine). Although longitudinal changes in strategy implementation did not vary by school characteristics, strategy implementation varied by urban-rural classification and school level throughout the school year. CONCLUSIONS: Strategies that were consistently implemented throughout the school year were also reported by a majority of schools, speaking toward their feasibility for school-based infection control and prevention and potential utility in future public health emergencies.

Disparities in Implementing COVID-19 Prevention Strategies in Public Schools, United States, 2021-22 School Year.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, US schools have been encouraged to take a layered approach to prevention, incorporating multiple strategies to curb transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Using survey data representative of US public K-12 schools (N = 437), we determined prevalence estimates of COVID-19 prevention strategies early in the 2021-22 school year and describe disparities in implementing strategies by school characteristics. Prevalence of prevention strategies ranged from 9.3% (offered COVID-19 screening testing to students and staff) to 95.1% (had a school-based system to report COVID-19 outcomes). Schools with a full-time school nurse or school-based health center had significantly higher odds of implementing several strategies, including those related to COVID-19 vaccination. We identified additional disparities in prevalence of strategies by locale, school level, and poverty. Advancing school health workforce and infrastructure, ensuring schools use available COVID-19 funding effectively, and promoting efforts in schools with the lowest prevalence of infection prevention strategies are needed for pandemic preparedness.

Challenges experienced by U.S. K-12 public schools in serving students with special education needs or underlying health conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic and strategies for improved accessibility.

BACKGROUND: Students with special education needs or underlying health conditions have been disproportionately impacted (e.g., by reduced access to services) throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. OBJECTIVE: This study describes challenges reported by schools in providing services and supports to students with special education needs or underlying health conditions and describes schools' use of accessible communication strategies for COVID-19 prevention. METHODS: This study analyzes survey data from a nationally representative sample of U.S. K-12 public schools (n = 420, February-March 2022). Weighted prevalence estimates of challenges in serving students with special education needs or underlying health conditions and use of accessible communication strategies are presented. Differences by school locale (city/suburb vs. town/rural) are examined using chi-square tests. RESULTS: The two most frequently reported school-based challenges were staff shortages (51.3%) and student compliance with prevention strategies (32.4%), and the two most frequently reported home-based challenges were the lack of learning partners at home (25.5%) and lack of digital literacy among students' families (21.4%). A minority of schools reported using accessible communications strategies for COVID-19 prevention efforts, such as low-literacy materials (7.3%) and transcripts that accompany podcasts or videos (6.7%). Town/rural schools were more likely to report non-existent or insufficient access to the internet at home and less likely to report use of certain accessible communication than city/suburb schools. CONCLUSION: Schools might need additional supports to address challenges in serving students with special education needs or with underlying health conditions and improve use of accessible communication strategies for COVID-19 and other infectious disease prevention.

Cumulative protective factors are associated with decreased risk for prescription opioid misuse among high school students.

BACKGROUND: Multiple protective factors at the individual and environmental levels have been associated with prescription opioid misuse (POM) among adolescents. The literature may benefit by extending this research to consider the association between cumulative protective factors and current (ie, within the past 30 days) POM. METHODS: The 2017 Virginia Youth Survey (part of the Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance System) (N=3697) was used to investigate recent POM and the presence of individual and cumulative protective factors among high school students. Youth were asked to indicate whether they had engaged POM within the past 30 days. A set of protective factors representing youths' internal assets (eg, aspirational plans for education) and external resources (eg, family meals, safe school environment) were investigated as predictors of current POM, followed by testing of a cumulative protective factor score. Logistic regression models estimated ORs and 95% CIs. RESULTS: When including demographics and risk factors in the model, none of the individual protective factors were significantly associated with current POM. Alternatively, the cumulative protective factor score was significantly associated with a decrease in the odds of current POM. CONCLUSIONS: The cumulative protective factor score was significantly associated with a decrease in the odds of current POM among high school students in Virginia. Programmes designed to provide multiple forms of support may be effective strategies for preventing current POM.

Initiation of nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school students.

Background: Nonmedical use of prescription opioids (NUPO) is associated with heroin use and other adverse outcomes among adolescents. To inform the timing of substance use prevention activities and which substances to target, we examined age at NUPO initiation, associations between substance use initiation and current (past 30-day) NUPO, and order of NUPO initiation relative to other substances. Methods: Data from 2,834 students aged 15 or older participating in the 2017 Virginia Youth Survey, the first Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System survey to assess age at NUPO initiation and current NUPO, were analyzed in 2019. Students reported current NUPO and ages at initiation for cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and NUPO (categorized as 12 or younger, 13 or 14, 15 or older, or never). Associations between age at substance use initiation and current NUPO were examined using adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: Overall, 12% of students reported lifetime NUPO, with 2.4%, 4.0%, and 5.6% initiating at 12 or younger, 13 or 14, and 15 or older, respectively; 5.3% reported current NUPO. Initiating cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana at each age category (compared with never) was associated with an increased prevalence of current NUPO after adjusting for demographics and initiation of other substances. Among students initiating NUPO, initiating NUPO at 12 or younger (compared with 15 or older) was associated with an increased prevalence of current NUPO after adjusting for demographics (aPR = 1.54, 95% CI: 1.10-2.16), but not after further adjustment for initiation of other substances (aPR = 1.38, 95% CI = 0.97-1.97). Among students initiating NUPO, 45.4% initiated NUPO before or during the same age as other substances. Conclusions: More than 6% of students initiated NUPO at 14 or younger. Younger substance use initiation was associated with current NUPO, suggesting that some students may benefit from prevention activities during early adolescence that address multiple substances.

Determinants of Youth-Reported Past 30-Day Tobacco Use.

The objective of this study was to utilize cross-sectional surveys to identify factors associated with past 30-day tobacco use among a sample youth and to determine whether regional differences exist. Data were obtained from the Virginia Youth Survey (2015 and 2017). Multinomial logistic regression models were used to examine associations between measures of past 30-day tobacco use and region, sex, grade, race/ethnicity, tobacco advertisement exposure, and presence of tobacco-free policies in the home and personal vehicles. These correlates were selected based upon existing literature on youth tobacco use. Past 30-day cigarette use, combustible tobacco use, non-combustible tobacco use, and dual product use were associated with region, sex, grade, and race/ethnicity. Specifically, youth residing in the Southwestern region of the state, males, and non-Hispanic White students and youth of other race/ethnicity were more likely to report past 30-day tobacco use. Additionally, higher levels of exposure to tobacco advertisements was also associated with past 30-day tobacco use. Future research needs to investigate the mechanisms by which youth tobacco use may differ by region, to help guide and target future policy and programming related to tobacco prevention and control at the local level.

Acute intake of B. longum probiotic does not reduce stress, anxiety, or depression in young adults: A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The gut microbiome communicates bidirectionally with the brain, linking the gut to psychological phenomena such as stress, depression, and anxiety. Probiotics, or ingestible supplements containing billions of mutualistic bacteria, have demonstrated the mechanistic potential to influence mood; however, few studies have experimentally examined the acute effects of these compounds on individuals not recruited for psychopathology or gut dysfunction. The present study hypothesized reductions in stress, anxiety and depression symptoms following an acute, one week dosing period of B. longum intake. METHODS: The efficacy of a one-week period of orally administered B. longum was tested utilizing a double-blind experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to either placebo or probiotic capsules under double blinded conditions and completed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI Y2 form) to assess for differences before and after one-week intervention. RESULTS: No significant reduction in symptoms between groups over the one-week period was found. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that 7-days of B. longum does not reduce stress, depressive symptoms, or anxiety in generally healthy young adults.

Examining the multidimensional role of self-efficacy for writing on student writing self-regulation and grades in elementary and high school.

BACKGROUND: The powerful role of self-efficacy on student achievement is clear. Less clear, however, is our understanding of the specific roles of the different factors of writing self-efficacy on student writing self-regulation and success. AIMS: This study expands our knowledge about student writing self-efficacy - including its dimensions and the relationship between its dimensions and practical writing outcomes with students from different age groups. SAMPLE: Participants were 992 elementary and 518 high school students across 65 teachers and 6 schools in the United States. METHODS: Data were collected via online questionnaires, one assessing student writing self-efficacy and the others teachers' reports of student writing self-regulation and writing/ELA grades. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results demonstrated significantly improved model fit for a three-factor model of writing self-efficacy compared to a one-factor model. A measurement invariance analysis of the writing self-efficacy scale indicated scalar invariance between the elementary and secondary samples. Structural equation modelling (SEM) results indicated that the second self-efficacy factor, self-efficacy for writing conventions, was statistically significantly related to writing/ELA grades for elementary students (ß = .33, p < .001) as well as for high school students (ß = .27, p < .01). Conventions were also the only factor statistically significantly related to teacher-reported student writing self-regulation for both elementary students (ß = .26, p < .01) and high school students (ß = .37, p < .001). Self-efficacy for ideation and self-efficacy for self-regulation were not found to be significantly related to either student writing/ELA grades or teacher-reported self-regulation (all ps > .19). CONCLUSIONS: Results support the multidimensionality of writing self-efficacy. In addition, findings emphasize a meaningful link between students' beliefs in their ability to conform to the rules of writing and their writing self-regulation and success.

Influence of Acute Multispecies and Multistrain Probiotic Supplementation on Cardiovascular Function and Reactivity to Psychological Stress in Young Adults: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: The potential influence of probiotic supplementation on cardiovascular health and stress responsivity remains largely unexplored. Some evidence suggests the possibility that probiotics may influence blood pressure. A separate body of research suggests that exaggerated cardiovascular reactions to acute psychological stress in the laboratory predict cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The current investigation explored the effect of acute probiotic use on (1) resting cardiovascular measures in healthy young adults and (2) cardiovascular and psychological reactions to an acute psychological stressor in the laboratory. METHOD: Participants (N = 105, M [SD] age = 20.17 [1.26], 84.8% white) completed a 2-week, double-blind, and placebo-controlled trial of a multispecies and multistrain probiotic. Exclusion criteria included previous probiotic use, diagnosed gastrointestinal disorder, and/or current antibiotic use. At visits 1 and 2, participants completed the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, a widely used psychological stress task. Participants were randomly assigned to a probiotic blend or matched placebo. RESULTS: Compared with placebo, 2-week probiotic supplementation did not affect resting measures of cardiovascular function, cardiovascular responses during or recovery from stress, or psychological reactions to acute psychological stress. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to expectations, short-term use of a probiotic supplement in healthy participants did not influence measures of cardiovascular function or responsivity to psychological stress. Future research is needed to determine species- and strain-specific effects of probiotics in healthy participants with various degrees of stress responsiveness, as well as in diseased populations.

Cardiovascular reactions to psychological stress and abuse history: the role of occurrence, frequency, and type of abuse.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Extreme cardiovascular reactions to psychological stress have been associated with traumatic life experiences. Previous studies have focused on the occurrence or frequency of abuse rather than type of abuse. We examined how occurrence, frequency, and the type of abuse history are related to cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to acute psychological stress. DESIGN: The study consisted of between group and continuous analyses to examine the association between occurrence, type, and frequency of abuse with cardiovascular reactions to acute psychological stress. METHODS: Data from 64 participants were collected. Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were measured at baseline and during a standard mental arithmetic stress task. RESULTS: Individuals who experienced abuse showed diminished CVR to acute psychological stress; this was driven specifically by the history of sexual abuse. Frequency of abuse did not relate to stress reactions. CONCLUSIONS: These findings accord with previous work suggesting a relationship between traumatic life experience and hypoarousal in physiological reactivity and extend previous findings by suggesting the relationship may be driven by sexual abuse.

Short-term supplementation of acute long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may alter depression status and decrease symptomology among young adults with depression: A preliminary randomized and placebo controlled trial.

The current study examined the psychological effects of acute and low-dose long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) supplementation on young adults with depressive symptoms. Participants (N=23, M age (SD)=20.2 (1.25), 78% female), with a Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) score of greater than 10, were randomly assigned to a placebo (corn oil) or LCPUFAs group (1.4g of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaeonic acids) and were instructed to consume the assigned capsules daily for 21-days. BDI was completed prior to supplementation and at day 21. Group differences in depression status on day 21 were analyzed using chi-square tests. After 21-days of supplementation, there was a significant difference in depression status between groups. 67% of the LCPUFAs no longer met criteria for being depressed, while only 20% in the placebo group were no longer depressed. A mixed ANOVA revealed a significant group x time interaction for BDI scores. Post-hoc analyses revealed the LCPFUAs group had a significant reduction in BDI scores over time, while the placebo group's scores did not significantly change. These findings suggest that LCPUFAs may alter depression and depressive symptomology in young adults in a relatively short amount of time.

Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and optimization of cognitive performance.

Low consumption of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenonic acids, is linked to delayed brain development and, in late life, increased risk for Alzheimer's disease. The current review focuses on cognitive functioning during midlife and summarizes available scientific evidence relevant to the hypothesis that adequate dietary consumption of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids is necessary for optimal cognitive performance. Taken together, the findings suggest that raising the currently low consumption among healthy adults may improve some aspects of cognitive performance. Nonetheless, evidence from randomized clinical trials is comparatively sparse and leaves unclear: (a) whether such effects are clinically significant, (b) whether effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA differ, (c) which dimensions of cognitive function are affected, (d) the dose-response relationships, or (e) the time course of the response. Clarification of these issues through both laboratory and clinical investigations is a priority given the broad implications for public health, as well as for military personnel and other positions of high performance demand and responsibility.

Concurrent physical activity modifies the association between n3 long-chain fatty acids and cardiometabolic risk in midlife adults.

Greater consumption of n3 (ω3) polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can reduce risk for cardiovascular disease events, yet their effects on metabolic risk factors and diabetes remain unclear. This cross-sectional study used a community volunteer sample to test whether the associations between n3 fatty acids and cardiometabolic risk vary as a function of physical activity. Participants were 344 generally healthy adults, 30-54 y of age, not taking fish oil supplements or confounding medications. Serum phospholipid EPA and DHA were used together (EPA+DHA) as a biomarker of n3 fatty acid exposure. Cardiometabolic risk was calculated as a continuous measure based on standardized distributions of blood pressure, waist circumference, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, and a simple count of risk factors. Insulin resistance was estimated from the homeostatic model assessment. Physical activity was found to predict cardiometabolic risk (P ≤ 0.02) and insulin resistance (P ≤ 0.02) and to moderate the association between EPA+DHA and both cardiometabolic risk (P-interaction ≤ 0.02) and insulin resistance (P-interaction ≤ 0.02). Specifically, higher EPA+DHA was associated with lower cardiometabolic risk and insulin resistance in persons engaged in regular physical activity but not in relatively inactive individuals. These findings were noted in several components of cardiometabolic risk, in men and women separately, and in models adjusted for overall diet quality. In midlife adults, habitual physical activity may be necessary to unmask the salutary effects of n3 fatty acids on cardiometabolic risk and insulin resistance.

Is the association between depression and blunted cardiovascular stress reactions mediated by perceptions of stress?

Symptoms of depression are related to blunted cardiovascular reactions to acute stress tasks. However, it is unclear what factors might mediate this association and whether blunted responses are specific to mental stress tasks or are also evident with other forms of stress. The present study assessed cardiovascular reactivity to both mental and postural stress and the role of background stress exposure and stress perception. Undergraduate students (N=119, 81 females) were screened for depressive symptoms using the Beck Depression Inventory. Twenty-six participants with probable depression and 26 non-depressed controls underwent cardiovascular stress testing. Heart rate (HR), systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure were measured at rest and in response to a 5min orthostatic challenge and an 8min mental arithmetic task. Stress exposure was measured using the Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire. Perceptions of general life stress were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and perceptions of the stress task impact were measured using Threat Appraisal (TA). Symptoms of depression were associated with blunted HR, F(2,98)=5.26, p=.010, η(2)=.097, and SBP, F(2,98)=6.47, p=.008, η(2)=.117, reactions to the mental stress but not to postural challenge. HR reactions were mediated by PSS score, while both PSS score and TA emerged independently as mediators of SBP reactions. These results confirm a negative relationship between depressive symptoms and cardiovascular reactions to acute stress, suggest that this association may be stress task-specific, and may be mediated by perceptions of stress.

Long-chain, n-3 fatty acids and physical activity--independent and interactive associations with cardiac autonomic control.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Intake of the marine-based, n-3 fatty acids and engagement in physical activity are inversely related to cardiac morbidity and mortality. Among putative mechanisms, both n-3 fatty acids and physical activity may act through modulation of autonomic control of the cardiovascular system. This investigation examined the independent and interactive associations of n-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic and docosahexanenoic acid; EPA, DHA) and physical activity with heart rate variability (HRV). METHODS: Subjects were 259 healthy 30-54 year-old adults. Serum phospholipid fatty acid composition was employed as a biomarker of dietary n-3 fatty acid exposure. Physical activity based on the Paffenbarger questionnaire was coded as < or ≥ 2000 kcal/week. Standard time-domain (standard deviation of normal-to-normal intervals and root-mean squared of successive differences; SDNN, RMSSD) and frequency domain (high frequency and low frequency power) measures of HRV were derived from resting electrocardiographic recordings. RESULTS: In linear regression models with covariate adjustment for age, gender and race, greater n-3 fatty acid exposure was associated with greater SDNN and RMSSD, and high physical activity was associated with greater RMSSD. n-3 fatty acid exposure also predicted variation in SDNN, RMSSD, and high-frequency power in interaction with physical activity. Specifically, n-3 fatty acid exposure covaried positively with these three HRV indices only among participants expending 2000 kcal per week or more in physical activity. These latter findings were noted for DHA but not EPA. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the cardiovascular benefits of n-3 fatty acid consumption may be mediated, in part, by effects on cardiac autonomic control and may be dependent upon concomitant habitual exercise.

Preliminary evidence that acute long-chain omega-3 supplementation reduces cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress: a randomized and placebo controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Exaggerated cardiovascular reactivity predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Some evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids improve cardiovascular function. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of an acute low dose of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids on young, healthy individuals. METHODS: Participants (n=34) were randomly assigned to either 21-days of omega-3 fatty acids (1.4 g EPA and DHA) or matched placebo. Cardiovascular measurements were obtained in the laboratory during baseline and during a standard mental arithmetic task, where participants were instructed to engage in serial subtractions by 17s from a four-digit number and cardiovascular reactivity to the task was calculated. RESULTS: Mean arterial pressure reactivity was significantly reduced by supplementation (F(1,32)=5. 12, p=.03, η(2)=.144) but not by placebo. CONCLUSION: Supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids may reduce cardiovascular reactivity to stress.

Daytime sleep accelerates cardiovascular recovery after psychological stress.

BACKGROUND: Sleep restriction and poor sleep quality is linked with cardiovascular morbidity. PURPOSE: The present study aimed to explore the influence of daytime sleep supplementation on cardiovascular reactivity. METHOD: Participants (N = 85) were generally healthy young adults and were randomized to a 60-min polysomnographically-monitored sleep condition or to a no-sleep condition. Participants then completed a standard three-phase mental stress reactivity task. RESULTS: Significantly lower mean arterial pressure means were found in the recovery phase of the stress reactivity task among participants that accrued more than 45 min of daytime sleep. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest daytime sleep may offer cardiovascular benefit in the form of greater cardiovascular recovery from psychological stress. Further research should assess daytime sleep characteristics (time of day, length, and architecture) on cardiovascular response, in an effort to better understand its role as a possible recuperative agent against suboptimal nocturnal sleep patterns.

Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and blood pressure.

BACKGROUND: High dose fish oil supplementation reduces blood pressure (BP) in hypertensive patients. The current study examines how modest variations in omega-3 fatty acid intake may affect BP in a healthy community sample. METHODS: Study participants included 265 Pittsburgh-area adults 30-54 years of age (11% black, 51% female) not taking omega-3 fatty acid supplements or antihypertensive medications. Standardized assessments of clinic and 24-h ambulatory BP, and pulse rate were obtained. Docosahexanenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in fasting serum phospholipids were measured by capillary gas chromatography. Regression analyses controlled for age, gender, race, body mass index (BMI), self-reported sodium intake, and physical activity. RESULTS: Participants included 181(68%) normotensives, 66 (25%) prehypertensives, and 18 (7%) persons with untreated hypertension. DHA was inversely associated with clinic diastolic (ß = -0.121, P = 0.03), awake ambulatory diastolic BP (ß = -0.164, P = 0.004), and 24-h diastolic BP (ß = -0.135, P = 0.02). A two standard deviation greater DHA was associated with 2.1 mm Hg lower clinic and 2.3 mm Hg lower awake ambulatory diastolic BP. In addition, DHA was inversely associated with pulse rate measured at rest in the clinic. EPA was related to clinic pulse rate but not clinic or ambulatory BP. CONCLUSION: In this sample of American adults not on antihypertensive medications, a modest, inverse association was found between DHA exposure and both clinic and ambulatory diastolic BP. Therefore, increasing DHA consumption through diet modification rather than large dose supplementation represents a candidate strategy for future studies of hypertension prevention.

High perceived stress in relation to life events is associated with blunted cardiac reactivity.

The current study examined whether the perception of life stress related to cardiovascular reactivity. Participants (n = 100) completed the Perceived Stress Scale, the Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire, and undertook a standard mental arithmetic stress task. Blood pressure and pulse rate were measured at baseline, during, and following stress task exposure. Reactivity was the difference between stress and baseline cardiovascular activity. A perceived stress difference score (PSDS) was calculated by subtracting the Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire scores from the Perceived Stress Scale scores. Two groups were created: high PSDS (n = 15; PSDS at least 1SD above the mean) and low PSDS (n = 15; PSDS at least 1SD below the mean). There was a significant difference between groups in pulse rate reactivity, F(1,28) = 8.73, p = .006, η² = .24. High PSDS scores were associated with significantly lower pulse rate reactions to stress. Those who perceived their lives as more stressful than their actual stress exposures justified would appear to be characterised by blunted cardiac reactivity.

Serum phospholipid docosahexaenonic acid is associated with cognitive functioning during middle adulthood.

Existing evidence links greater dietary intake of fish and (n-3) PUFA to better early brain development and lowered risk of cognitive disorders in late life. The mechanisms for these associations remain unclear and may be related to specific (n-3) fatty acids and may concern cognitive function generally rather than only early brain development and age-related cognitive dysfunction. In this investigation, we tested potential associations between (n-3) fatty acids in serum phospholipids and major dimensions of cognitive functioning in mid-life adults. Participants were 280 community volunteers between 35 and 54 y of age, free of major neuropsychiatric disorders, and not taking fish oil supplements. Dietary biomarkers were alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenonic acid (DHA) in serum phospholipids measured using GC. Five major dimensions of cognitive functioning were assessed with a 75-min battery of neuropsychological tests. In covariate adjusted regression models, higher DHA (mol %) was related to better performance on tests of nonverbal reasoning and mental flexibility, working memory, and vocabulary (P