Limited oxygen in standard cell culture alters metabolism and function of differentiated cells.

The in vitro oxygen microenvironment profoundly affects the capacity of cell cultures to model physiological and pathophysiological states. Cell culture is often considered to be hyperoxic, but pericellular oxygen levels, which are affected by oxygen diffusivity and consumption, are rarely reported. Here, we provide evidence that several cell types in culture actually experience local hypoxia, with important implications for cell metabolism and function. We focused initially on adipocytes, as adipose tissue hypoxia is frequently observed in obesity and precedes diminished adipocyte function. Under standard conditions, cultured adipocytes are highly glycolytic and exhibit a transcriptional profile indicative of physiological hypoxia. Increasing pericellular oxygen diverted glucose flux toward mitochondria, lowered HIF1α activity, and resulted in widespread transcriptional rewiring. Functionally, adipocytes increased adipokine secretion and sensitivity to insulin and lipolytic stimuli, recapitulating a healthier adipocyte model. The functional benefits of increasing pericellular oxygen were also observed in macrophages, hPSC-derived hepatocytes and cardiac organoids. Our findings demonstrate that oxygen is limiting in many terminally-differentiated cell types, and that considering pericellular oxygen improves the quality, reproducibility and translatability of culture models.

A high-content endogenous GLUT4 trafficking assay reveals new aspects of adipocyte biology.

Insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane in muscle and adipocytes is crucial for whole-body glucose homeostasis. Currently, GLUT4 trafficking assays rely on overexpression of tagged GLUT4. Here we describe a high-content imaging platform for studying endogenous GLUT4 translocation in intact adipocytes. This method enables high fidelity analysis of GLUT4 responses to specific perturbations, multiplexing of other trafficking proteins and other features including lipid droplet morphology. Using this multiplexed approach we showed that Vps45 and Rab14 are selective regulators of GLUT4, but Trarg1, Stx6, Stx16, Tbc1d4 and Rab10 knockdown affected both GLUT4 and TfR translocation. Thus, GLUT4 and TfR translocation machinery likely have some overlap upon insulin-stimulation. In addition, we identified Kif13A, a Rab10 binding molecular motor, as a novel regulator of GLUT4 traffic. Finally, comparison of endogenous to overexpressed GLUT4 highlights that the endogenous GLUT4 methodology has an enhanced sensitivity to genetic perturbations and emphasises the advantage of studying endogenous protein trafficking for drug discovery and genetic analysis of insulin action in relevant cell types.

Trafficking regulator of GLUT4-1 (TRARG1) is a GSK3 substrate.

Trafficking regulator of GLUT4-1, TRARG1, positively regulates insulin-stimulated GLUT4 trafficking and insulin sensitivity. However, the mechanism(s) by which this occurs remain(s) unclear. Using biochemical and mass spectrometry analyses we found that TRARG1 is dephosphorylated in response to insulin in a PI3K/Akt-dependent manner and is a novel substrate for GSK3. Priming phosphorylation of murine TRARG1 at serine 84 allows for GSK3-directed phosphorylation at serines 72, 76 and 80. A similar pattern of phosphorylation was observed in human TRARG1, suggesting that our findings are translatable to human TRARG1. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 increased cell surface GLUT4 in cells stimulated with a submaximal insulin dose, and this was impaired following Trarg1 knockdown, suggesting that TRARG1 acts as a GSK3-mediated regulator in GLUT4 trafficking. These data place TRARG1 within the insulin signaling network and provide insights into how GSK3 regulates GLUT4 trafficking in adipocytes.

Phenotypic characterization of Adig null mice suggests roles for adipogenin in the regulation of fat mass accrual and leptin secretion.

Adipogenin (Adig) is an adipocyte-enriched transmembrane protein. Its expression is induced during adipogenesis in rodent cells, and a recent genome-wide association study associated body mass index (BMI)-adjusted leptin levels with the ADIG locus. In order to begin to understand the biological function of Adig, we studied adipogenesis in Adig-deficient cultured adipocytes and phenotyped Adig null (Adig-/-) mice. Data from Adig-deficient cells suggest that Adig is required for adipogenesis. In vivo, Adig-/- mice are leaner than wild-type mice when fed a high-fat diet and when crossed with Ob/Ob hyperphagic mice. In addition to the impact on fat mass accrual, Adig deficiency also reduces fat-mass-adjusted plasma leptin levels and impairs leptin secretion from adipose explants, suggesting an additional impact on the regulation of leptin secretion.

Association of ABI3 and PLCG2 missense variants with disease risk and neuropathology in Lewy body disease and progressive supranuclear palsy.

Missense variants ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G were previously associated with elevated or reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), respectively. Despite reports of associations with other neurodegenerative diseases, there are few studies of these variants in purely neuropathologically diagnosed cohorts. Further, the effect of these mutations on neurodegenerative disease pathologies is unknown. In this study, we tested the effects of ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G on disease risk in autopsy cohorts comprised of 973 patients diagnosed neuropathologically with Lewy body disease (LBD-NP) and 1040 with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), compared to 3351 controls. LBD-NP patients were further categorized as high, intermediate and low likelihood of clinical dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB-CL) based on DLB Consortium criteria. We also tested for association with both Braak neurofibrillary tau tangle (nTotal = 2008, nPSP = 1037, nLBD-NP = 971) and Thal phase amyloid plaque scores (nTotal = 1786, nPSP = 1018, nLBD-NP = 768). Additionally, 841 PSP patients had quantitative tau neuropathology measures that were assessed for genetic associations. There was no statistically significant association with disease risk for either LBD-NP or PSP in our study. LBD intermediate category disease risk was significantly associated with ABI3_rs616338-T (OR = 2.65, 95% CI 1.46-4.83, p = 0.001). PLCG2_rs72824905-G was associated with lower Braak stage (ß = - 0.822, 95% CI - 1.439 to - 0.204, p = 0.009). This effect was more pronounced in the PSP (ß = - 0.995, 95% CI - 1.773 to - 0.218, p = 0.012) than LBD-NP patients (ß = - 0.292, 95% CI - 1.283 to 0.698, p = 0.563). PLCG2_rs72824905-G also showed association with reduced quantitative tau pathology for each lesion type and overall tau burden in PSP (ß = - 0.638, 95% CI - 1.139 to - 0.136, p = 0.013). These findings support a role for PLCG2_rs72824905-G in suppressing tau neuropathology. ABI3_rs616338-T may influence disease risk specifically in the LBD-NP intermediate category comprised of patients with diffuse neocortical or limbic LB, concurrently with moderate or high AD neuropathology, respectively. Our study provides a potential mechanism of action for the missense PLCG2 variant and suggests a differential disease risk effect for ABI3 in a distinct LBD-NP neuropathologic category.

Correction to: A nonsynonymous mutation in PLCG2 reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and frontotemporal dementia, and increases the likelihood of longevity.

The IPDGC (The International Parkinson Disease Genomics Consortium) and EADB (Alzheimer Disease European DNA biobank) are listed correctly as an author to the article, however, they were incorrectly listed more than once.

A nonsynonymous mutation in PLCG2 reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and frontotemporal dementia, and increases the likelihood of longevity.

The genetic variant rs72824905-G (minor allele) in the PLCG2 gene was previously associated with a reduced Alzheimer's disease risk (AD). The role of PLCG2 in immune system signaling suggests it may also protect against other neurodegenerative diseases and possibly associates with longevity. We studied the effect of the rs72824905-G on seven neurodegenerative diseases and longevity, using 53,627 patients, 3,516 long-lived individuals and 149,290 study-matched controls. We replicated the association of rs72824905-G with reduced AD risk and we found an association with reduced risk of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). We did not find evidence for an effect on Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and multiple sclerosis (MS) risks, despite adequate sample sizes. Conversely, the rs72824905-G allele was associated with increased likelihood of longevity. By-proxy analyses in the UK Biobank supported the associations with both dementia and longevity. Concluding, rs72824905-G has a protective effect against multiple neurodegenerative diseases indicating shared aspects of disease etiology. Our findings merit studying the PLCγ2 pathway as drug-target.

ABI3 and PLCG2 missense variants as risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases in Caucasians and African Americans.

BACKGROUND: Rare coding variants ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G were identified as risk or protective factors, respectively, for Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: We tested the association of these variants with five neurodegenerative diseases in Caucasian case-control cohorts: 2742 AD, 231 progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), 838 Parkinson's disease (PD), 306 dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and 150 multiple system atrophy (MSA) vs. 3351 controls; and in an African-American AD case-control cohort (181 AD, 331 controls). 1479 AD and 1491 controls were non-overlapping with a prior report. RESULTS: Using Fisher's exact test, there was significant association of both ABI3_rs616338-T (OR = 1.41, p = 0.044) and PLCG2_rs72824905-G (OR = 0.56, p = 0.008) with AD. These OR estimates were maintained in the non-overlapping replication AD-control analysis, albeit at reduced significance (ABI3_rs616338-T OR = 1.44, p = 0.12; PLCG2_rs72824905-G OR = 0.66, p = 0.19). None of the other cohorts showed significant associations that were concordant with those for AD, although the DLB cohort had suggestive findings (Fisher's test: ABI3_rs616338-T OR = 1.79, p = 0.097; PLCG2_rs72824905-G OR = 0.32, p = 0.124). PLCG2_rs72824905-G showed suggestive association with pathologically-confirmed MSA (OR = 2.39, p = 0.050) and PSP (OR = 1.97, p = 0.061), although in the opposite direction of that for AD. We assessed RNA sequencing data from 238 temporal cortex (TCX) and 224 cerebellum (CER) samples from AD, PSP and control patients and identified co-expression networks, enriched in microglial genes and immune response GO terms, and which harbor PLCG2 and/or ABI3. These networks had higher expression in AD, but not in PSP TCX, compared to controls. This expression association did not survive adjustment for brain cell type population changes. CONCLUSIONS: We validated the associations previously reported with ABI3_rs616338-T and PLCG2_rs72824905-G in a Caucasian AD case-control cohort, and observed a similar direction of effect in DLB. Conversely, PLCG2_rs72824905-G showed suggestive associations with PSP and MSA in the opposite direction. We identified microglial gene-enriched co-expression networks with significantly higher levels in AD TCX, but not in PSP, a primary tauopathy. This co-expression network association appears to be driven by microglial cell population changes in a brain region affected by AD pathology. Although these findings require replication in larger cohorts, they suggest distinct effects of the microglial genes, ABI3 and PLCG2 in neurodegenerative diseases that harbor significant vs. low/no amyloid ß pathology.