Estrogen and soy isoflavonoids decrease sensitivity of medulloblastoma and central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumor cells to chemotherapeutic cytotoxicity.

BACKGROUND: Our previous studies demonstrated that growth and migration of medulloblastoma (MB), the most common malignant brain tumor in children, are stimulated by 17ß-estradiol. The growth stimulating effects of estrogens are mediated through ERß and insulin-like growth factor 1 signaling to inhibit caspase 3 activity and reduce tumor cell apoptosis. The objective of this study was to determine whether estrogens decreased sensitivity of MB cells to cytotoxic actions of chemotherapeutic drugs. METHODS: Using in vitro cell viability and clonogenic survival assays, concentration response analysis was used to determine whether the cytoprotective effects of estradiol protected human D283 Med MB cells from the cytotoxic actions of the MB chemotherapeutic drugs cisplatin, vincristine, or lomustine. Additional experiments were done to determine whether the ER antagonist fulvestrant or the selective ER modulator tamoxifen blocked the cytoprotective actions of estradiol. ER-selective agonists and antagonists were used to define receptor specificity, and the impacts of the soy-derived phytoestrogens genistein, daidzein, and s-equol on chemosensitivity were evaluated. RESULTS: In D283 Med cells the presence of 10 nM estradiol increased the IC50 for cisplatin-induced inhibition of viability 2-fold from ~5 µM to >10 µM. In clonogenic survival assays estradiol decreased the chemosensitivity of D283 Med cells exposed to cisplatin, lomustine and vincristine. The ERß selective agonist DPN and low physiological concentrations of the soy-derived phytoestrogens genistein, daidzein, and s-equol also decreased sensitivity of D283 Med cells to cisplatin. The protective effects of estradiol were blocked by the antiestrogens 4-hydroxytamoxifen, fulvestrant (ICI 182,780) and the ERß selective antagonist PPHTP. Whereas estradiol also decreased chemosensitivity of PFSK-1 cells, estradiol increased sensitivity of Daoy cell to cisplatin, suggesting that ERß mediated effects may vary in different MB celltypes. CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that E2 and environmental estrogens decrease sensitivity of MB to cytotoxic chemotherapeutics, and that ERß selective and non-selective inhibition of estrogen receptor activity blocks these cytoprotective actions. These findings support the therapeutic potential of antiestrogen adjuvant therapies for MB, and findings that soy phytoestrogens also decrease sensitivity of MB cells to cytotoxic chemotherapeutics suggest that decreased exposure to environmental estrogens may benefit MB patient responses to chemotherapy.

Estrogen Receptor-ß Up-Regulates IGF1R Expression and Activity to Inhibit Apoptosis and Increase Growth of Medulloblastoma.

Medulloblastoma (Med) is the most common malignant brain tumor in children. The role of ESR2 [estrogen receptor (ER)-ß] in promoting Med growth was comprehensively examined in three in vivo models and human cell lines. In a novel Med ERß-null knockout model developed by crossing Esr2(-/-) mice with cerebellar granule cell precursor specific Ptch1 conditional knockout mice, the tumor growth rate was significantly decreased in males and females. The absence of Esr2 resulted in increased apoptosis, decreased B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), and IGF-1 receptor (IGF1R) expression, and decreased levels of active MAPKs (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (AKT). Treatment of Med in Ptch1(+/-) Trp53(-/-) mice with the antiestrogen chemotherapeutic drug Faslodex significantly increased symptom-free survival, which was associated with increased apoptosis and decreased BCL2 and IGF1R expression and signaling. Similar effects were also observed in nude mice bearing D283Med xenografts. In vitro studies in human D283Med cells metabolically stressed by glutamine withdrawal found that 17ß-estradiol and the ERß selective agonist 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile dose dependently protected Med cells from caspase-3-dependent cell death. Those effects were associated with increased phosphorylation of IGF1R, long-term increases in ERK1/2 and AKT signaling, and increased expression of IGF-1, IGF1R, and BCL2. Results of pharmacological experiments revealed that the cytoprotective actions of estradiol were dependent on ERß and IGF1R receptor tyrosine kinase activity and independent of ERα and G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (G protein coupled receptor 30). The presented results demonstrate that estrogen promotes Med growth through ERß-mediated increases in IGF1R expression and activity, which induce cytoprotective mechanisms that decrease apoptosis.

Classical nuclear hormone receptor activity as a mediator of complex concentration response relationships for endocrine active compounds.

Nonmonotonic concentration response relationships are frequently observed for endocrine active ligands that act via nuclear receptors. The curve of best fit for nonmonotonic concentration response relationships are often inverted U-shaped with effects at intermediate concentrations that are different from effects at higher or lower concentrations. Cytotoxicity is a major mode of action responsible for inverted U-shaped concentration response relationships. However, evidence suggests that ligand selectivity, activation of multiple molecular targets, concerted regulation of multiple opposing endpoints, and multiple ligand binding sites within nuclear receptors also contribute to nonmonotonic concentration response relationships of endocrine active ligands. This review reports the current understanding of mechanisms involved in classical nuclear receptor mediated nonmonotonic concentration response relationships with a focus on studies published between 2012 and 2014.

In vitro assessment of human nuclear hormone receptor activity and cytotoxicity of the flame retardant mixture FM 550 and its triarylphosphate and brominated components.

Firemaster(®) 550 (FM 550) is a mixture of brominated and triarylphosphate flame retardants used in polyurethane foam-based products. The primary components are also used in numerous other applications and are thus common household and industrial contaminants. Our previous animal studies suggested that FM 550 exposure may alter metabolism and cause weight gain. Employing human nuclear receptor (NR) luciferase reporter assays, the goal of this study was to evaluate the agonist actions of FM 550 and its constituent compounds at NRs with known roles in establishing or regulating energy balance. FM 550 was found to have significant agonist activity only at the master regulator of adipocyte differentiation PPARγ. As a result, the concentration response relationships and relative activities of FM 550 at PPARγ were investigated in more detail with the contribution of each chemical component defined and compared to the activities of the prototypical PPARγ environmental ligands triphenyltin and tributyltin. The resulting data indicated that the primary metabolic disruptive effects of FM 550 were likely mediated by the activity of the triarylphosphates at PPARγ, and have identified TPP as a candidate metabolic disruptor that also acts as a cytotoxicant.

Estrogen-like disruptive effects of dietary exposure to bisphenol A or 17α-ethinyl estradiol in CD1 mice.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disrupting chemical that is ubiquitous in wild and built environments. Due to variability in study design, the disruptive effects of BPA have proven difficult to experimentally replicate. This study was designed to assess the disruptive actions of dietary BPA exposure, while carefully controlling for known confounders. Parental CD1 mice were acclimated to defined diet containing BPA (0.03, 0.3, 3, 30, or 300 ppm) or 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE; 0.0001, 0.001, and 0.01 ppm) and bred to produce progeny (F1) that were maintained through adulthood on the same diet as the parents. In F1 females, uterine weights were increased in all EE and the 30-ppm BPA-exposure groups, demonstrating model sensitivity and estrogen-like actions of BPA. In BPA-exposed females, no treatment-related differences were observed in parental reproductive function, or in the timing of puberty and metabolic function in female offspring. In F1 males, modest changes in body weight, adiposity and glucose tolerance, consistent with improved metabolic function, were observed. Associated with increased prolactin and increased circulating testosterone levels, balanopreputial separation was accelerated by 0.03 and 3.0 ppm BPA and anogenital distance at postnatal day 21 was increased in males by 0.03 ppm BPA. Sperm counts were also increased with 3.0 ppm BPA exposures. Overall, BPA was found to have modest, sex specific endocrine disruptive effects on a variety of end points below the established no observed adverse effect level. The dose response characteristics for many of the effects were nonmonotonic and not predictable from high-dose extrapolations.